ENCYCLOP/V JiKJTANNICA ' KLKVXNTM '::i'?;>:-:'V:;,i'M IM; •'< a .' Iw yia • vol. . v. 111 THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volume*, 1768—1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788 — 1797. FOURTH twenty 1801— 1810. FIFTH twenty r8i$— 1817. SIXTH twenty 18*3—1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1003. ELEVENTH „ published ui twenty-nine volumes, I tjeneral'> Paris. Editor of the Canoniste Contemporain. L Cardinal. A. Bo.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. or of Canon Law at the < '.u I Editor of the Canoniste Contemporain. A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. /PI.., . n . /• _,•> See the biographical article, SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. \ tnaPman George (in part). A. E. H A. E. HOUGHTON. f r-mnrhn- fnnnvac H«l fncHlln- Formerly Correspondent of The Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of lhe\ £?*,„ Bourbons in Spatn. [_ Castelar y Ripoll. A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S. ( Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Reader I Chaetognatha; in Zoology. Formerly University Lecturer on the Advanced. Morphology of the •< Chaetosomatida Invertebrata. Author of Zoology of the Invertebrate. Editor of the Pitt Press Natural Science Manuals, &c. A. Co.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / Lecturer in Church History at the University of Manchester. \ Carranza. A. H. J. G. ABEL HENDY TONES GREENIDGE, D.LITT. (OXON.), (d. 1905). r Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; Handbook of Greek Constitutional -I Censor: Ancient History; Roman Public Life, History of Rome. Joint-author of Sources of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. I A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.LITT., LL.D. /_ See the biographical article, SAYCE, A. H. \ oarla- A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. ( Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, J Catechism; Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore ] Calvin (in part) A. L. ANDREW LANG. / r_,k((t , Bf4.._ See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW. 1 oas Jn> A. LO. AUGUSTE LONGNON. f Professor at the College dc France. Director of the Ecole des hautes etudes. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute. Author of Livre~{ Champagne. des vassaux du Comte de Champagne et de Brie; Gfographie de la Gaule au VI siecle; Atlas historique de la France depuis Cesar jusqu'a nos jours; &c. A. H. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. / See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M. \ Cassini. A. M. C1. AGNES MURIEL CLAY (MRS WILDE). f Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Sources oj \ Centumviri. Roman History, 133-70 B.C. A. •. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Canary; See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFREB. 1 Capercally A. P. C. ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN. F.R.S. r Professor of Geology, University of Toronto. i Canada: Geography. A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D.. M.P. A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water- i Cancer. Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperante and Legislation. I 'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1974 VI A. S. C. A. V. De P. A. Wa. A. W. H. * A.Z. ' B. BI. B. Ra. C. F. A. C. P. C. C. J. J. C.L. C.Pf. C. R. B. C. S. L. D. E. J. D. F. T. D. G. H. D. H. D. LI. T. D. Mn. E. AT. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. r Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900—1908. Took part in organiza- tion of the Textile Manufacturers' Section, St Louis Exhibition, 1904. Author of -i Carpet. Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace; Embroidery and Lace; Ornament in European Silks ; &c. A. VAN DE PUT. Assistant, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Author of Hispano- Moresque Ware of the XV. Century; The Aragonese Double-Crown and the Borja or Borgia Device. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A. Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly literary ?dviser to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of Alfred Lord Tennyson ; Legends of the Wheel ; Robert Browning in " Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's Lives of the Poets. ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. 1900. Ceramics: §Hispano-Moresque. j Calverley, C. S. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, -< Charlemagne. ALICE ZIMMERN. Author of Methods of Education in the United States; The Renaissance of Girls' Education in England; Women's Suffrage in Many Lands; &c. BERTRAM BLOUNT, F.C.S., F.I.C. Consulting Chemist to the Crown Agents for the Colonies. Hon. President, Cement Section of International Association for Testing Materials, Buda-Pesth. Author of Practical Electro-Chemistry. BERNARD RACKHAM, M.A. Assistant, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. C. F. CROSS., B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S., F.I.C. Analytical and Consulting Chemist. CHARLES JASPER JOLY, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (1864-1906). Royal Astronomer of Ireland and Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, 1897-1906. Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Secretary of the Royal Irish Academy. H. CALDWELL LIPSETT. Formerly Editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore, India. Curzon in India; &c. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D-ES-L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lirr. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. CHARLES STEWART LOCH, D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (ST ANDREWS). Secretary to the Council of the London Charity Organization Society since 1875. Member of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws. Dunkin Trust Lecturer, Manchester College, Oxford, 1896 and 1902. Vice-President, Royal Statistical Society, 1894-1895-1897-1901. Author of Charity Organization; Old Age Pensions and Pauperism; Methods of Social Advance; &c. REV. D. E. JENKINS. Calvinistic Methodist Minister, Denbigh. Edwards of Bala. 4 Carpenter, Mary. Cement. /Ceramics: § German, Dutch \ and Scandinavian. Castle (in part). ; Cellulose. {Camera Lucida; Camera Obscura (in part). Author of Lord\ Ceylon (in part). | Capitulary; Carolingians; [Charibert; Charles MarteL {Cam, Diogo; Carpini (in part); Chang Chun. Charity and Charities. Author of Life of Lewis Charles DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; - Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. Barrister at law, Lincoln's Inn. J Calvinistic Methodists; | Charles, Thomas. ! Cantata. Author of Short History of the Royal Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and Rhondda. Cappadocia (in part). {Carvajal, Luisa de; Chateau-Renault. | Cardiff. Campbell, John McLeod; I Chalmers, Thomas (in part). REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. r Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive J, Congregational Ideals ; &c. EDWARD ARMSTRONG, M.A. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow, Bursar and Lecturer in Modern History, Pucen's College, Oxford. Warden of Bradfield College. Lecturer to the University -\ Charles V., Emperor. in Foreign History, 1902-1904. Author of The Emperor Charles V.; Elisabeth Farnese; Lorenzo de Medici; The French Wars of Religion; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll E. A. J E. B.* S.C. E. C. B. E. C. Q. E. G. E. Cr. E. H. B. E. H. G. E. H. M. E L. W. Ed. M. E. 0.* E P- E. Tn. E.V. P. C. C. r. j . H. P. LLG. r. n. m. E. ALFRED JONES. r Author of Old English Gold Plait; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Stiver Sacramental Vessels of Foreifn Protestant Churches in England; Illustrated Catalogue \ Cellini Renvanutn (in of Leopold de RHUcfUft Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of The Royal } ' 9nvenuto Un Plait at Windsor Castle ; &c. I ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON. Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of tne Acad6mie des I nscrip- J _ .. . lions de Belles Lettres, Pans. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of 1 ^arlnaS8' Ancient. Descriptions llistoriques des Monnaiesde la Ripublique Romainc; TraMsdes Monnaies Grecques et Romaines; Catalogue des Camies de la Bibliothbque Nationale. EDWARD CAIRO, D.C.L., D.Lrrr. See the biographical article, CAIRO, EDWARD. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lirr. (Dublin). Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius,' in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A. Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in Celtic at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. See the biographical article, GOSSE, EDMUND ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER. See the biographical article, GARDNER, PERCY. -! Cartesianism. I Camaldulians; , I Canon: Church Dignitary; I Capuchins; Carmelites; I Carthusians; Celestlnes. Celt: Languages and Literature. Canzone; Carew, Thomas; Cavendish, George; Chansons de Geste; Chant Royal. Calydon; Ceos. Ccphalonia. SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, BART., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). f M. P. for Bury-St-Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of a History of Ancient Geography, 4 Cappadocia (in part). &c. E. H. GODFREY. Editor, Census and Statistics Office, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Canada: § Agriculture. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian -s Carpi: Ancient Tribes. at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. SIR EDWARD LEADER WILLIAMS (d. 1910). Vice-President, Institute of Civil Engineers. Consulting Engineer, Manchester J ,, . Ship Canal. Chief Engineer of the Manchester Ship Canal during its construction. 1 l'anal- Author of papers printed in Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineers. I EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D. (Chicago). f Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des \ Cambyses. Alter thums ; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarsldmme. EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Ex- •{ Carbuncle. amincr in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. EDGAR PRESTAGE. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex- aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Commendador Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Author of Letters of a Portuguese Nun; Aiurara's Chronicler] Guinea; &c. REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON (d. 1907). Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England ; Sec. REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1810-1805). Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen). Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals (1909); &c. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D. (Aberdeen), F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford University. Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Formerly Senior Censor, Student, Tutor and Librari?n' of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford s Lecturer, 1906. Author of Monographs on Roman History, &c. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial ' German Archaeological Institute. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. Lecturer in Military History at Manchester University. Author of War and the- World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. Camoens; Castello Branco; Castilho. Campegglo; Campion, Edmund; Cano, Melchlor; Cassander, George; Castellesi. Catacomb (in part). Cathars. Celtiberla; Cassiterides. Canopus. Cavalry. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. Px. FRANK PUAUX. (" ramisards- President of the Soci&e' de 1'Histoire du Protestantisme francais. Author of Les I J^1"'*"*1 precurseurs franc.ais de la Tolerance; Histoire de I' etablissement des protestants fran$ais 1 Cavalier, Jean. en Suede; L'Eglise reformee de France; &c. F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. / Cameroon; Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Cape Colony. F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. [Carbonado; Cassiterite; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. "i Cat's Eye; Celestine; President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I Chalcedony. G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.Sc., PH.D. (Giessen). J Carp; Assistant in the Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensing- "\ *„* pi.i, ton. Vice-President of the Zoological Society. G. G. Co. GEORGE GORDON COULTON, M.A. J Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author "j Celibacy. of Medieval Studies ; Chaucer and his England ; From St Francis to Dante ; &c. I G. H. C. G. H. CARPENTER, B.Sc. f Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: 4 Chafer. their Structure and Life. [_ G. M. W. GEORGE McKiNNON WRONG, M.A., F.R.S. (Canada). f Professor of History at Toronto University. Author of A Canadian Manor and its J Canada: History to Federation. Seigneurs; The British Nation: a History; &c. L G. R. P. GEORGE ROBERT PARKIN, LL.D., C.M.G. /Canada: History from Federa- See the biographical article, PARKIN, G. R. \ tion. G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. C Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -I Carmathians. Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. H. A. M. S. HENRY A. M. SMITH. -j Calhoun, John C. H. B. Wa. HENRY BEAUCHAMP WALTERS, M.A., F.S.A. r Assistant to Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Author of _ „ , ., The Art of the Greeks; History of Ancient Pottery; Catalogue of the Greek and\ Ceramics: Greek, btruscan and Etruscan Vases in the British Museum, vol. ii. ; Catalogue of Bronzes, Greek, Roman Roman. and Etruscan ; &c. H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f Campbell Bannerman, Sir H.; Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition^ Canon: Music- of the Encyclopaedia Britannica ; co-editor of the I oth edition. (. chamberlain J H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, SJ. T Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana\ Canonization. and Acta Sanctorum. [_ H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S. , PH.D. f Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. \ Chameleon. Author of Amphibia and Reptiles. H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. (McGill Univ.). fri-i, *• Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of \ Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. L Calorimetry. H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. f Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; \ Charles Edward. The Last Stuart Queen. I H. P. B. H. P. BIGGAR. J" Author of The Voyages of the Cabols to Greenland. \ Carder, Jacques. H. H. H. HENRY R. H. HALL, M.A. /Ceramics: Egypt and Western Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum. \ . Asia. H. By. HENRY SYMONS. Assistant in the British Museum. Formerly Lecturer in Greek and Roman History -j Chambord, Comte de. at Bedford College, London. H. T. A. REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. f Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of The Com- \ mentary on Acts in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the Apocryphal | t/atecnumen. Books in the Century Bible. H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. r Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J /..-H-I.,. (:„ t,nrf\ Oxford, 1901. Author of Hebrew ion to Pauline Anthrool */w (in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c. H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, -j Cavallotti. 1897-1902. H. Y. COLONEL SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I. / See the biographical article, YULE,. SIR H. \ Carpinl (tn part). J. A. B. SIR JERVOISE ATHELSTANE BAINES, C.S.I. f President, Royal Statistical Society, 1909-1910. Census Commissioner under the J Government of India, 1889-1893. Employed at India Office as Secretary to Royal ~{ Census. Commission on Opium, 1894-1895. Author of Official Reptrts on Provineial Administration on Indian Census Operations; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix J. A. H. J. A. J. Bl. J. C. H. J. D. Pr. J. F. D. J. F.- K . J. H. F. J. H. R. J. HI. R. J. MIX J. P.-B. J. P. E. J. R. C. J.S.F. J. T. Be. J. T. C. J. Wa. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. J. A. M-NAUGHT. Member of the Jury for Carriage Building, Paris Exposition, 1900. J. BARTLETT. Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's . College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior Engineers. JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, F.R.S. See biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK. JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. f Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York. Took part in J Chaldaea. the Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-1889. Authorof A Critical Commentary } on the Book of Daniel. I f Callovian; Cambrian System; ! Caradoc Series; I Carboniferous System; Chalk. - Carriage. -j Capillary Action (in part). SIR J. FREDERICK DICKSON, K.C.M.G. Reorganized the North-West Province of Ceylon. Upasampada-Kammavaca and the Patimokha. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.Hisr.S Editor and translator of the \ Ceylon (in part). I Campoamor y Campoosorio; Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University, rnctilln Norman MacColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. \ ~ , Author of A History I Celestma, La; Corresponding Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. of Spanish Literature ; &c. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and Pedigree. [ Cervantes. Calpurnius, Titus. Castle (in part). Castle Guard. Chair. Chatelet. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lirr.D. f Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J Cambaeeres. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European j Nations; The Life of Pitt; chapters in the Cambridge Modern History. JAMES MACDONALD, M.A., LL.D. r Vice-President of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1895-1897. Rhind J Lecturer on Archaeology, 1897. Author of Tituli Hunteriani: an Account of the | Roman Stones in the Hunterian Museum. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. Editor of the Guardian (London). JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours ettmentaire d'histoire du droit ' franfais; &c. [ JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A. f Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, -< Calorescence. Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc^ F.G.S. f Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in I Charnoekite Edinburgh University. NeillMedallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby | Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I JOHN T. BEALBY. Joint author of Stanford's Europe 1 ..,•.. 'I 'L.-m. ~I* A r, „ I 'a **» — „! A r .., ., — rl '/ Vi, .( .!.'.„ I . Caucasus (in part). JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Assistant Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist - Cephalopoda. to the Marine Biological Association, and Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of numerous papers in scientific journals. MAJOR-GENERAL JAMES WATERHOUSE. Indian Staff Corps. Vice- President of the Royal Photographic Society. Assistant Surveyor-General in charge of Photographic Operations in the Surveyor-General's Office, Calcutta, 1866-1897. Took part in the observation of total eclipses, 1871 and 1875, and of transit of Venus, 1874. President of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1888-1890. Author of The Preparation of Drawings for Photographic Reproduction ; &c. f Caspian Sea (in part); . tie. Formerly editor of the Scottish Geographical J Caucasia' 'Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. | rmn ,.' / Camera Obscura: History. J. W D. J. W. Be. CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON R.N. Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal. JAMES WYCLITTE HEADLAM, M.A. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek and Ancient History ' at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the- Foundation of the German Empire ; Ac. Capstan. Caprivi. 0. Br. x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES L. D.* MONSEIGNEUR LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. J r.,,,t See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O. \ Callxtus l-> Celestme I. L. J. B. LAWRENCE J. BURPEE. f Canada: Literature Author of The Search for the Western Sea. Joint author (with Henry J. Morgan) of -\ r ' ,. Canadian Life in Town and Country. I Canadian. L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. | Cerargyrite; Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar I Cerussite; of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- 1 Chabazite* logical Magazine. [ Chalybite.' L. S. SIR LESLIE STEPHEN, K.C.B., Lrrr.D. / See the biographical article: STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE. \ {Cantu; Cappello; Capponi, G. and P • ro_, .,-,-. r" i. "' . caraceioio, carbonari; Carmagnola; Carrara; Cavour. M. Br. MARGARET BRYANT. I" Chapman, George (part) ; I Charlemagne: Legends. M. G. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig). r Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President , Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine J Cantacuzino; Literature, 1 886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England. Vice-President Cantemir. Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature ; &c. L M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. r Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome, and the Franco- J Caricature; British Exhibition, London. Authorof Historyof" Punch"; British Portrait Painting | Cartoon to the Opening of the iQth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day ; Henriette Ronner ; &c. L M. J. de G. MICHAEL JAN DE GOEJE. f See the biographical article: GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE. ^ Caliphate. M. P. REV. MARK PATTISON. f See the biographical article: PATTISON, MARK. "\ Casaubon, Isaac. N. E. D. NARCISSE EUTROPE DIONNE, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada). Librarian of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. Chief Editor of Le Courrier du Canada, 1880-1884. Chief Inspector of Federal Licences, 1884-1886. Chief Editor of Le Journal de Quebec, 1886. Author of Life of Samuel Champlain, Founder "j Champlain, Samuel de. of Quebec ; Life of Jacques Cartier, discoverer of Canada ; La Nouvelle France, 1540- 1603 ; Quebec et Nouvelle France ; &c. N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. r Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Societ^ d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and\ Cannibalism. Marriage in Australia; &c. 0. Ba. OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f~ r .. Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. 1 wc"- OSCAR BRILIANT. j Carpathian Mountains (in part) . 0. M. D. ORMONDE MADDOCK_DALTON, M.A., F.S.A. i. Assistant Keeper, Department of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum Corresponding Member of the Imperial Russian Archaeolof Guide to the Early Christian and Byzantine Antiquities; &c. Corresponding Member of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Society. Author of | Catacomb (in part). X^_ _ _• _J _ 1 _ it. _ T* ?__ X""I_ .__*_*_• I « A* A ..I* _*.!_" O__ P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. r Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, J Paris. Author of Les lakes morales chez les heterodoxes latines au olebut du XIII' 1 Capistrano. siecle. [_ P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. r Casnian Sea See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A. P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YOKE, M.A. f Catnei.ine Of Aragon; Magdalen College, Oxford. \ char,es , . char,es „ P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. r Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J Carpathian Mountains (in part)- >f the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian ~l - . r i Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. ( Caucasus, (oology. P. Vn. PERCIVAL SYLVANTJS VIVIAN. f Author of Poems of Marriage. Editor of the Poetical Works of Thomas Campion. \ Campion, Thomas. P. A. M. PERCY ALEXANDER MACMAHON, F.R.S. , D.Sc. c Late Major R.A. Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint- J Cavlev General Secretary of the British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, 1 Ordnance College, and President of London Mathematical Society. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. R. A.« R. Ad. R. A. S. M. R. C. R. I. P. R. K. D. R.L.* R. L. H. R. N. B. R. Po. R. P. S. R. S. C. R. W. R.We. STC. S. D. T. As. T. A. H. T. B*. T. P. C. THE RT. HON. LORD RAYLEIGH. See the biographical article: RAYLEIGH, 3rd Baron. ROBERT ANCHEL. Archivist to the Department de I'Eure. ROBERT ADAMSON. See the biographical article: ADAMSON, R. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACAUSTER, M.A., F.S.A. Director of Excavations (or the Palestine Exploration Fund. RICHARD GARNETT. See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. R. I. Pococr, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. Capillary Action (in part). /Carnbon, Pierre Joseph; \ Cathelineau. I Category (in part). j Capernaum; Carmel. Cardan. Centipede. Six ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum, and J Canton. Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and Litera- 1 lure of China ; &c. RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Camel; Capuchin Monkey; Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Carnivore* Cat' Cavy Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of „ . . I. all Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa ; &c. I ™<*ce*> Chamois. all ROBERT LOCKHART HOBSON. Assistant in the Department of British and Medieval Antiquities, British Museum. Author of Porcelain: Oriental, Continental and British ; Marks on Pottery and • Porcelain (with W. Burton); and Catalogue and Guide of English Pottery and Porcelain in British Museum. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. IQCO). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1000; The First Romanovs, . 1613-172$; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796 ; &c. REST! POCPAKDIN, D. is L. Secretary of the Ecole des Charles. Honorary Librarian at the BibliothSque Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaumt de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil ' des chartes de Saint-Germain; &c. I R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Master of the Architectural School and Surveyor, Royal Academy, London. Campanile; Capital; Arch.; Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's 4 Cathedral: Arch.; College, London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Edited Ceiling. Fergusson's History of A rchitecture. Author of A rchitecture East and West ; &c. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., p.Lrrr. (Cantab.). r Professor of Latin in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin J Campania (in part) in University College, Cardiff ; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 1 Author of The Italic Dialects. I ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S. Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Carton Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., J r«ttle (in 6arl) Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; Indian Agri- ' culture; The Agriculture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of Cape Colony; &c. Ceramics: Medieval and Later Italian; Persian, Syrian, Egyptian and Turkish. Canute; Canute VI.; Casimir III.; Casimlr IV.; Catherine I.; Charles I. (Hungary); Charles IX., X., XL, XII. (Sweden). Charles XIII., XIV., XV. (Sweden and Norway). Charles the Bold. RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. Editor of Elegies of Maximianus. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OP. SAMUEL DAVIDSON, D.D. See the biographical article: DAVIDSON, SAMUEL. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ - Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c. CAPTAIN THOMAS A. HULL, R.N. Formerly Superintendent of Admiralty Charts. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of the Congo Fre« State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. THEODORE FREYUNGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. J Channing, | Casuistry. William E. Canon: Scriptures. Camerino; Campania(tn part) ; Canosa; Canusium; Capena; Capri; Capua; Carales; Carsioli; Casilinum ; Casinum; Cassia, Via; Catania; Caudlne Forks; Cefalu; Centuripe; Cesena. Chart. Capture. f Carthage, Synods of; Chaleedon, Council of. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE. D.LiTT.,_D.D. I" V if. A ttUfliAa rwJ^i^x wnr.i«r,. U.LJILL., \j.\j. I See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \ Canaan, Canaanites. T. H. F. THOMAS MACALL FALLOW, M.A., F.S.A. C Formerly editor of The Antiquary, 1895-1899. Author of Memorials ofOld Yorkshire ; 4 Cathedral. The Cathedral Churches of Ireland. T. W. F. THOMAS WILLIAM Fox. r Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics of J. Carding. Weaving. W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Cannes- Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's I -, College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature 1 ^Mmomx; and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. [Chartreuse, La Grande. W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. [" Canon: Church Dignitary; Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, •{ Capo d'Istria; Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. [ Carlsbad Decrees; Chasuble. W. B.* WILLIAM BURTON, HON. M.A. (Viet.), F.C.S. [ Chairman, Joint-Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Examiner J for Board of Education in Pottery Design and for Technological Examinations in 1 Ceramics (in part). Pottery Manufacture. Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware ; Porcelain ; &c. i W. B. D. WILLIAM BOYD DAWKINS, F.R.S., D.Sc. J See the biographical article : DAWKINS, WILLIAM BOYD. "^ Cave. W. B. Du. WILLIAM BARTLETT DUFFIELD, M.A. (" Barrister at Law, Inner Temple. Secretary to the Royal Commission on Canals, •{ Chartered Companies. 1906-1910. [ W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. (" Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's College, « Capital Punishment. London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). W. F. W. WALTER FRANCIS WILLCOX, LL.B., PH.D. Dean of, and Professor of Political Economy and Statistics at, Cornell University. Formerly Chief Statistician and now Special Agent of the U.S. Census Bureau. J Census: USA Author of The Divorce Problem — a Study in Statistics; Social Statistics of the United States ;&c. { W. Fr. WILLIAM FREAM (d. 1907), LL.D., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.S. f Author of Handbook of Agriculture. Formerly Agricultural Correspondent of The -j Cattle (in part). Times. W. G.* WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Geologist on H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-bearing Rocks of the •< Cape Colony: Geology. S. Transvaal ; Mineral Wealth of Africa ; The Geology of Coal and Coal Mining ; &c. W. G. F. P. SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D. r Judge of the King's Bench Division. President of International Law Association, J fannn i aw. A~0i;r.,, 1905. Author of Book of Church Law. Editor of 2nd ed. of Phillimore's Ecclesi- \ astical Law; 3rd ed. of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law; &c. W. G. M. WALTER G. M'MILLAN, F.C.S., M.I.M.E. (d. 1004). f Formerly Secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. Lecturer on Metallurgy, -j Carborundum. Mason College, Birmingham. Author of A Treatise on Electro-Metallurgy. W. Ha. REV. WILLIAM HANNA, LL.D., D.D. (1802-1882). r Minister of St John's Free Church, Edinburgh, 1850-1866. Author of Life of Dr J Chalmers, Thomas (in part). Chalmers ; Wycliffe and the Huguenots ; Martyrs of the Scottish Reformation. W. J. G. WILLIAM JOHN GRUFFYDD, M.A. r Lecturer in Celtic, University College, Cardiff. Examiner in Welsh to the Central Welsh Board for Intermediate Education. Author of Caneuon a Cherddi: An~\ Celt: Literature, Welsh. Anthology of Medieval Welsh Poetry. W. L. * WALTER LEHMANN, M.D. r Directorial Assistant of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Conducted - . . ,117 Exploring Expedition in Mexico and Central America, 1907-1909. Author of many ] Central Am< publications on Mexican and Central American Archaeology. W. L. A. REV. WILLIAM LINDSAY ALEXANDER, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.) (1808-1884).' r Classical Tutor, Lancashire Independent College. Pastor of Independent Chapel, I N. College Street, Edinburgh. One of the Old Testament Revisers. Author of 1 Calvin (in part). A Moral Philosophy. W. L. G. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in Canada: Statistics; Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council, Colonial 1 Cartier Sir Georges Etienne. series; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. f Canova; Caracci; Cartoon; See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. j Cellini, Benvenuto (in part); W. HI. WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. (Aberdeen), D.Lrrr. Charlet. Fellow of the British Academy. Disney Professor of Archaeology at Cambridge f University. Professor of Greek, Queen's College, Cork, 1883. Ex- President of Cambridge Philological, Antiquarian and Classical Societies. Author of The Oldest -j Celt. Irish Epic; Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards; The Early Age of Greece; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xin W. R. B. RT. REV. WILLIAM ROBERT BROWNLOW, M.A., D.D. (d. 1901). Roman Catholic Bishop of Clifton. Provost and Domestic Prelate to Pope Leo XIII. Co-editor of English Roma Sotlerranea. Author ef Early Christian Symbol-] Catacomb (in part). ism; Lectures on Sacerdotalism, on the Catacombs and other Archaeological Subjects. Translator of Cur Dtus Homo and Vitis mystica. W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH. See the biographical article : SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. W. Wo. WILLIAM WOOD, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Canada). Lieut. -Col., Canadian Militia. Formerly President of the English Section of the! Canada : Literature, French- Royal Society of Canada and of the Historic Landmarks Association. Author of | Canadian The Fight for Canada ; The Logs of the Conquest of Canada, &c. W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Lie. THEOL. Assistant Protestor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. W. Y. S. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR. See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. | Canticles (in part). [Celestine III. and V. |catuUus (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES California. Cambodia. Cambridge, Earls and Dukes of. Cambridge, England. Cambridgeshire. Campbell, Thomas. Canary Islands. Canning, George. Canterbury. Cape Town. Cape Verde Islands. Capital (Economics). Capitulations. Carbolic Acid. Carbon. Cardiganshire. Cards, Playing. Carducci, Giosue. Carinthia. Carlisle. Earls of. Carlisle. Carlos. Carlsbad. Carlstadt. Carmarthenshire. Carnarvonshire. Carnegie, Andrew. Carnot. Carol. Caroline Islands. Carrier. Cartagena. Cassel. Cassiodorus. Caste. Catherine, Saint. Catherine II. Catherine de' Medici. Catiline. Cato. Causation. Cavaignac, Louis Eugene. Cavan. Cavendish, Henry. Caxton, William. Cedar. Celebes. Celsus. Cemetery. Chambers, Robert. Chancellor. Chancery. Channel Islands. Chantrey, Sir Francis. Charles V., VI., VII. of France. Charles, Archduke of Austria. Charles Albert, king of Sar- dinia. Charles Augustus. Chartism. Chateaubriand. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME V CALHOUN. JOHN CALDWELL (1782-1830), American states- man and parliamentarian, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent, in Abbeville District, South Carolina, on the iSth of March 1782. u her, Patrick Calboun, is said to have been born in Donegal, in North Ireland, but to have left Ireland when a mere child. The family seems to have emigrated first to Pennsylvania, whence they removed, after Braddock's defeat, to Western Virginia. From Virginia they removed in 1756 to South Caro- lina and settled on Long Cane Creek, in Granville (now Abbeville) county. Patrick Calhoun attained some prominence in the colony, serving in the colonial legislature, and afterwards in the state legislature, and taking part in the War of Independence. In 1770 he had married Martha Caldwcll, the daughter of another Scottish-Irish settler, The opportunities for obtaining a liberal education in the remote districts of South Carolina at that time were scanty. Fortunately, young Calhoun had the opportunity, although late, of studying under his brother-in-law, the Rev. Moses Waddell (1770-1840), a Presbyterian minister, who afterwards, from 1819 to 1829, was president of the University of Georgia. In 1802 Calhoun entered the junior class La Yale College, and graduated with distinction in 1804. He then studied first at the famous law school in Litchfield, Conn., and afterwards in a law office in Charleston, S.C., and in 1807 was admitted to the bar. He began practice in his native Abbeville district, and soon took a leading place in his profession. In 1808 and 1809 he was a member of the South Carolina legislature, and from i Si i to 1817 was a member of the national House of Repre- sentatives. When he entered the latter body the strained relations between Great Britain and the United States formed the most important question for the deliberation of Congress. Henry Clay, the speaker of the house, being eager for war and knowing Calhoun's hostility to Great Britain, gave him the second place on the committee of foreign affairs, of which he soon became the actual head. In less than three weeks the committee reported resolutions, evidently written by Calhoun, recommend- ing preparations for a struggle with Great Britain; and in the following June Calhoun submitted a second report urging a formal declaration of war. Both sets of resolutions the House adopted. Clay and Calhoun did more, probably, than any other two men in Congress to force the reluctant president into beginning hostilities. In 1816 Calhoun delivered in favour of a protective tariff a speech that was ever held up by his opponents as evidence of his inconsistency in the tariff controversy. The embargo and the war had crippled American commerce, but had stimulated manufactures. With the end of th«- Napoleonic wars in Europe the industries of the old world revived, and Americans began to feel their competition. In the consequent distress in the new industrial centres there arose a cry for protection. Calhoun, believing that there was a natural tendency in the United States towards the development of manufactures, supported the Tariff Bill of 1816, which laid on certain foreign commodities duties higher than were necessary for the purposes of revenue. He believed that the South would share in the general industrial development, not having perceived as yet that slavery was ?in insuperable obstacle. His opposition to protection in later years resulted from an honest change of convictions. He always denied that in supporting this bill he had been inconsistent, and insisted that it was one for revenue. From 1817 to 1825 Calhoun was secretary of war under President Monroe. To him is due the fostering and the reforma- tion of the National Military Academy at West Point, which he found in disorder, but left in a most efficient state. Calhoun was vice-president of the United States from 1825 to 1832, during the administration of John Quincy Adams, and during most of the first administration of Andrew Jackson. This period was for Calhoun a time of reflection. His faith in a strong national- istic policy was gradually undermined, and he finally became the foremost champion of particularism and the recognized leader of what is generally known as the " States Rights " or " Strict Construction " party. In 1824 there was a very large increase in protective duties. In 1828 a still higher tariff act, the so-called " Bill of Abomina- tions," was passed, avowedly for the purpose of protection. The passage of these acts caused great discontent, especially among the Southern states, which were strictly agricultural. They felt that the great burden of this increased tariff fell on them, as they consumed, but did not produce, manufactured articles. Under such conditions the Southern states questioned the constitutionality of the imposition. Calhoun himself now perceived that the North and the South represented diverse tendencies. The North was outstripping the South in population and wealth, and already by the tariff acts was, as he believed, selfishly levying taxes for its sole benefit. The minority must, he insisted, be protected from " the tyranny of the majority." In his first important political essay, " The South Carolina Exposition," prepared "by him in the summer of 1828, he showed how this should be done. To him it was clear that the Federal Constitution was a limited instrument, by which the sovereign states had delegated to the Federal government certain general powers. The states could not, without violating the constitu- tional compact, interfere with the activities of the Federal government so long as the government confined itself to its proper sphere; but the attempt of Congress, or any other v. i CALHOUN department of the Federal government, to exercise any power which might alter the nature of the instrument would be an act of usurpation. The right of judging such an infraction belonged to the state, being an attribute of sovereignty of which the state could not be deprived without being reduced to a wholly sub- ordinate condition. As a remedy for such a breach of compact the state might resort to nullification (q.v.), or, as a last resort, to secession from the Unionl Such doctrines were not original with Calhoun, but had been held in various parts of the Union from time to time. It remained for him, however, to submit them to a rigid analysis and reduce them to a logical form. Meantime the friendship between Calhoun and Jackson had come to an end. While a member of President Monroe's cabinet, Calhoun had favoured the reprimanding of General Jackson (q.v.) for his high-handed course in Florida in 1818, during the first Seminole War. In 1831 W. H. Crawford, who had been a member of this cabinet, desiring to ruin Calhoun politically by turning Jackson's hostility against him, revealed to Jackson what had taken place thirteen years before. Jackson could brook no criticism from one whom he had considered a friend; Calhoun, moreover, angered the president still further by his evident sanction of the social proscription of Mrs Eaton (5.11.) ; the political views of the two men, furthermore, were becoming more and more divergent, and the rupture between the two became complete. The failure of the Jackson administration to reduce the Tariff of 1828 drew from Calhoun his " Address to the People of South Carolina " in 1831, in which he elaborated his views of the nature of the Union as given in the " Exposition." In 1832 a new tariff act was passed, which removed the " abominations " of 1828 but left the principle of protection intact. The people of South Carolina were not satisfied, and Calhoun in a third political tract, in the form of a letter to Governor James Hamilton (1786-1857) of South Carolina, gave his doctrines their final form, but without altering the fundamental principles that have already been stated. In 1832 South Carolina, acting in substantial accordance with Calhoun's theories, " nullified " the tariff acts passed by Congress in 1828 and 1832 (see NULLIFICATION; SOUTH CAROLINA; and UNITED STATES). On the 28th of December 1832 Calhoun resigned as vice-president, and on the 3rd of January 1833 took his seat in the Senate. President Jackson had, in a special message, taken strong ground against the action of South Carolina, and a bill was introduced to extend the jurisdiction of the courts of the United States and clothe the president with additional powers, with the avowed object of meeting the situ- ation in South Carolina. Calhoun, in turn, introduced resolu- tions upholding the doctrine held by South Carolina, and it was in the debate on the first-named measure, termed the " Force Bill," and on these resolutions, that the first intellectual duel took place between Daniel Webster and Calhoun. Webster declared that the Federal government through the Supreme Court was the ultimate expounder and interpreter of its own powers, while Calhoun championed the rights of the individual state under a written contract which reserved to each state its sovereignty. The practical result of the conflict over the tariff was a com- promise. Congress passed an act gradually reducing the duties to a revenue basis, and South Carolina repealed her nullification measures. As the result of the conflict, Calhoun was greatly strengthened in his position as the leader of his party in the South. Southern leaders generally were now beginning to perceive, as Calhoun had already seen, that there was a permanent conflict between the North and the South, not only a divergence of interests between manufacturing and agricultural sections, but an inevitable struggle between free and slave labour. Should enough free states be admitted into the Union to destroy the balance of power, the North would naturally gain a preponderance in the Senate, as it had in the House, and might, within constitutional limits, legislate as it pleased. The Southern minority recognized, therefore, that they must henceforth direct the policy of the government in all questions affecting their peculiar interests, or their section would undergo a social and economic revolution. The Constitution, if strictly interpreted according to Calhoun's views, would secure this control to the minority, and prevent an industrial upheaval. An element of bitterness was now injected into the struggle. The Northern Abolitionists, to whom no contract or agreement was sacred that involved the continuance of slavery, regarded the clauses in the Federal Constitution which maintained the property rights of the slave-owners as treaties with evil, binding on no one, and bitterly attacked the slave-holders and the South generally. Their attacks may be said to have destroyed the moderate party in that section. Any criticism of their peculiar institution now came to be highly offensive to Southern leaders, and Calhoun, who always took the most advanced stand in behalf of Southern rights urged (but in vain) that the Senate refuse to receive abolitionist petitions. He also advocated the exclusion of abolitionist literature from the mails. Indeed from 1832 until his death Calhoun may be said to have devoted his life to the protection of Southern interests. He became the exponent, the very embodiment, of an idea. It is a mistake, however, to characterize him as an enemy to the Union. His contention was that its preservation depended on the recog- nition of the rights guaranteed to the states by the Constitution, and that aggression by one section could only end in disruption. Secession, he contended, was the only final remedy left to the weaker. Calhoun was re-elected to the Senate in i834andin 1840, serving until 1843. From 1832 to 1837 he was a man without a party. He attacked the " spoils system " inaugurated by President Jackson, opposed the removal of the government deposits from the Bank of the United States, and in general was a severe critic of Jackson's administration. In this period he usually voted with the Whigs, but in 1837 he went over to the Democrats and supported the " independent treasury " scheme of President Van Buren. He was spoken of for the presidency in 1844, but declined to become a candidate, and was appointed as secretary of state in the cabinet of President Tyler, serving from the ist of April 1844, throughout the remainder of the term, until the loth of March 1845. While holding this office he devoted his energies chiefly to the acquisitions of Texas, in order to preserve the equilibrium between the South and the constantly growing North. One of his last acts as secretary of state was to send a despatch, on the 3rd of March 1845, inviting Texas to accept the terms proposed by Congress. Calhoun was once more elected to the Senate in 1843. The period of his subsequent service covered the settlement of the Oregon dispute with Great Britain and the Mexican War. On the ipth of February 1847 ne introduced in the Senate a series of resolutions concerning the territory about to be acquired from Mexico, which marked the most advanced stand as yet taken by the pro-slavery party. The purport of these resolutions was to deny to Congress the power to prohibit slavery in the territories and to declare all previous enactments to this effect unconstitutional. In 1850 the Union seemed in imminent danger of dissolution. California was applying for admission to the Union as a state under a constitution which did not permit slavery. Her ad- mission with two Senators would have placed the slave-holding states in the minority. In the midst of the debate on this applica- tion Calhoun died, on the 3ist of March 1850, in Washington. Calhoun is most often compared with Webster and Clay. The three constitute the trio upon whom the attention of students at this period naturally rests. Calhoun possessed neither Webster's brilliant rhetoric nor his easy versatility, but he surpassed him in the ordered method and logical sequence of his mind. He never equalled Clay in the latter's magnetism of impulse and inspiration of affection, but he far surpassed him in clearness and directness and in tenacity of will. He surpassed them both in the distinct- ness with which he saw results, and in the boldness with which he formulated and followed his conclusions. Calhoun in person was tall and slender, and in his later years was emaciated. His features were angular and somewhat harsh, but with a striking face and very fine eyes of a brilliant dark blue. To his slaves he was just and kind. He lived the modest, unassuming life of a country planter when at his home, and at Washington lived as unostentatiously as possible, consistent with CALI— CALIBRATION his public duties and position. His character in other respects was always of stainless integrity. BiBLItXiRAPHY.— A i-iillrt-ir»l edition of Calhoun's H'orAj (6 vols.. New York. 1853-1855) has been .-.lit.. I |.\ Ki, h.ir.l K. ( i.ill.'. The most important *pttvhr:> ami papers are: — The South Carolina Expoittu- ^peeth on Ike Force BUI (1833) ; Reply to Webster ;); Speech on Ike Reception of Abotii: »ts (1836), and on He Veto Power (1842); a Disquisition on Government, and a Discourse on the Constitution and Government of the United States (1849-1850) — the l.i>t two. writtrn a short time before his death, defend with great ability the rights of a minority under a t-mrrn- mcnt such as that of the I'nitcd States. C.illioun's Correspondence, edited by J. Kranklin Jameson, has Urn published by the American •rical Association (see Report for 1899, vol. ii.). The biography of Calhoun by Or Hermann von Hoist in the "American State*- men Series" (Boston, 1882) is a condensed study of the political questions of Calhoun's time. Gustavus M. Pinckncy's Life of John C. Caihoun (Charleston, 1903) gives a sympathetic Southern view. Gaillard Hunt's John C. Calhoun (Philadelphia, 1908) is a valuable » : K (H. A. M. S.) CALI, an inland town of the department of Cauca, Colombia, South America, about 180 m. S.W. of Bogota and 50 m. S.E. of the port of Buenaventura, on the Rio Cali, a small branch of the Cauca. Pop. (1906 estimate) 16,000. Cali stands 3327 ft. above sea-level on the western side of the Cauca valley, one of the healthiest regions of Colombia. The land-locked character of this region greatly restricts the city's trade and development; but it is considered the most important town in the department. It has a bridge across the Cali, and a number of religious and public edifices. A railway from Buenaventura will give Cali and the valley behind it, with which it is connected by over 200 m. of river navigation, a good outlet on the Pacific coast. Coal deposits exist in the immediate vicinity of the town. CALIBRATION, a term primarily signifying the determination of the " calibre " or bore of a gun. The word calibre was intro- duced through the French from the Italian calibro, together with other terms of gunnery and warfare, about the i6th century. The origin of the Italian equivalent appears to be uncertain. It will readily be understood that the calibre of a gun requires accurate adjustment to the standard size, and further, that the bore must be straight and of uniform diameter throughout. The term was subsequently applied to the accurate measurement and testing of the bore of any kind of tube, especially those of thermometers. In modern scientific language, by a natural process of transi- tion, the term " calibration " has come to denote the accurate comparison of any measuring instrument with a standard, and more particularly the determination of the errors of its scale. It is seldom possible in the process of manufacture to make an instrument so perfect that no error can be discovered by the most delicate tests, and it would rarely be worth while to attempt to do so even if it were possible. The cost of manufacture would in many cases be greatly increased without adding materially to the utility of the apparatus. The scientific method, in all cases which admit of the subsequent determination and correc- tion of errors, is to economize time and labour in- production by taking pains in the subsequent verification or calibration. This process of calibration is particularly important in laboratory research, where the observer has frequently to make his own apparatus, and cannot afford the time or outlay required to make special tools for fine work, but is already provided with apparatus and methods of accurate testing. For non-scientific purposes it is generally possible to construct instruments to measure with sufficient precision without further correction. The present article will therefore be restricted to the scientific use and application of methods of accurate testing. General Methods and Principles. — The process of calibration of any measuring instrument is frequently divisible into two parts, which differ greatly in importance in different cases, and of which one or the other may often be omitted, (i) The deter- mination of the value of the unit to which the measurements are referred by comparison with a standard unit of the same kind. This is often described as the Standardization of the instrument, or the determination of the Reduction factor. (2) The verification of the accuracy of the subdivision of the scale of the instrument. This may be termed calibration of the scale, and does not necessarily involve the comparison of the instrument with any . indc|>endenl standard, but merely the verification of the accuracy of the relative values of its indications. In many cases the process of calibration adopted consists in the comparison of the instrument to be tested with a standard over the whole range of its indications, the relative values of the subdivisions of the standard itself having been previously tested. In this case the distinction of two parts in the process is unnecessary, and the term calibration is for this reason frequently employed to include both. In some cases it is employed to denote the first part only, but for greater clearness and convenience of description we shall restrict the term as far as possible to the second meaning. The methods of standardization or calibration employed have much in common even in the cases that appear most diverse. They are all founded on the axiom that " things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another." Whether it is a question of comparing a scale with a standard, or of testing the equality of two parts of the same scale, the process is essentially one of interchanging or substituting one for the other, the two things to be compared. In addition to the things to be tested there is usually required some form of balance, or comparator, or gauge, by which the equality may be tested. The simplest of such comparators is the instrument known as the callipers, from the same root as calibre, which is in constant use in the workshop for testing equality of linear dimensions, or uniformity of diameter of tubes or rods. The more complicated forms of optical comparators or measuring machines with scales and screw adjustments arc essentially similar in principle, being finely adjustable gauges to which the things to be compared can qe suc- cessively fitted. A still simpler and more accurate comparison is that of volume or capacity, using a given mass of liquid as the gauge or test of equality, which is the basis of many of the most accurate and most important methods of calibration. The common balance for testing equality of mass or weight is so delicate and so easily tested that the process of calibration may frequently with advantage be reduced to a series of weighings, as for instance in the calibration of a burette or measure-glass by weighing the quantities of mercury required to fill it to different marks. The balance may, however, be regarded more broadly as the type of a general method capable of the widest application in accurate testing. It is possible, for instance, to balance two electromotive forces or two electrical resistances against each other, or to measure the refractivity of a gas by balancing it against a column of air adjusted to produce the same retardation in a beam of light. These " equilibrium," or " null," or " balance " methods of comparison afford the most accurate measurements, and are generally selected if possible as the basis of any process of calibration. In spite of the great diversity in the nature of things to be compared, the fundamental principles of the methods employed are so essentially similar that it is possible, for instance, to describe the testing of a set of weights, or the cali- bration of an electrical resistance-box, in almost the same terms, and to represent the calibration correction of a mercury thermometer or of an ammeter by precisely similar curves. Method of Substitution. — In comparing two units of the same kind and of nearly equal magnitude, some variety of the general method of substitution is invariably adopted. The same method in a more elaborate form is employed in the calibration of a series of multiples or submultiples of any unit. The details of the method depend on the system of subdivision adopted, which is to some extent a matter of taste. The simplest method of subdivision is that on the binary scale, proceeding by multiples of 2. With a pair of submultiples of the smallest denomination and one of each of the rest, thus I, I, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c., each weight or multiple is equal to the sum of all the smaller weights, which may be substituted for it, and the small difference, if any, observed. If we call the weights A, B, C, &c., where each is approximately double the following weight, and if we write a for observed excess of A over the rest of the weights, b lor that of B over C+D+&C., and so on, the observa- tions by the method of substitution give the series of equations, A -rest =o,5 -rest <=6,C-rest = c, &c. . . (l) Subtracting the second from the first, the third from the second, and so on, we obtain at once the value of each weight in terms of the preceding, so that all may be expressed in terms of the largest, which is most conveniently taken as the standard B=A/2 + (b-a)/2, C = B/2 + (c-b)2, &c. . . (2) The advantages of this method of subdivision and comparison, in addition to its extreme simplicity, arc (i) that there is only one possible combination to represent any given weight within the range of the series; (2) that the least possible number of weights is required to cover any given range; (3) that the smallest number of substitutions is required for the complete calibration. These advantages are important in cases where tne accuracy of calibration is limited by the constancy of the conditions of observation, as in the case of an electrical resistance-box, but the reverse may be the case when it is a question ef accuracy of estimation by an observer. In the majority of cases the ease of numeration afforded by familiarity with the decimal system is the most important CALIBRATION . consideration. The most convenient arrangement on the decimal system for purposes of calibration is to have the units, tens, hundreds, &c., arranged in groups of four adjusted in the proportion of the numbers I, 2, 3, 4. The relative values of the weights in each group of four can then be determined by substitution inde- pendently of the others, and the total of each group of four, making ten times the unit of the group, can be compared with the smallest weight in the group above. This gives a sufficient number of equations to determine che errors of all the weights by the method of substitution in a very simple manner. A number of other equa- tions can be obtained by combining the different groups in other ways, and the whole system of equations may then be solved by the method of least squares; but the equations so obtained are not all of equal value, and it may be doubted whether any real advantage is gained in many cases by the multiplication of comparisons, since it is not possible in this manner to eliminate constant errors or personal equation, which are generally aggravated by prolonging the observations. A common arrangement of the weights in each group on the decimal system is 5, 2, I, I, or 5, 2, 2, I. These do not admit of the independent calibration of each group by substitution. The arrangement 5, 2, I, I, I, or 5, 2, 2, I, I, permits independent calibration, but involves a'larger number of weights and observations than the I, 2, 3, 4, grouping. The arrangement of ten equal weights in each group, which is adopted in " dial " resistance-boxes, and in some forms of chemical balances where the weights are mechanically applied by turning a handle, presents great advantages in point of quickness of manipulation and ease of numeration, but the complete calibration of such an arrangement is tedious, and in the case of a resistance-box it is difficult to make the necessary connexions. In all cases where the same total can be made up in a variety of ways, it is necessary in accurate work to make sure that the same weights are always used for a given combination, or else to record the actual weights used on each occasion. In many investigations where time enters as one of the factors, this is a serious drawback, and it is better to avoid the more complicated arrangements. The accurate adjust- ment of a set of weights is so simple a matter that it is often possible to neglect the errors of a well-made set, and no calibration is of any value without the most scrupulous attention to de- TABLE tails of manipulation, and Earticularly to the correction >r the air displaced in com- paring weights of different materials. Electrical resist- ances are much more difficult to adjust owing to the change of resistance with tempera- ture, and the calibration of a resistance-box can seldom be neglected on account of the changes of resistance which are liable to occur after adjustment from imperfect annealing. It is also necessary to remember that the order of accuracy required, and the actual values of the smaller resistances, depend to some extent on the method of connexion, and that the box must be calibrated with due regard to the conditions under which it is to be used. Otherwise the method of procedure is much the same as in the case of a box of weights, but it is necessary to pay more attention to the constancy and uniformity of the temperature conditions of the observing-room. Method of Equal Steps. — In calibrating a continuous scale divided into a number of divisions of equal length, such as a metre scale divided in millimetres, or a thermometer tube divided in degrees of temperature, or an electrical slide-wire, it is usual to proceed by a method of equal steps. The simplest method is that known as the method of Gay Lussac in the calibration of mercurial thermometers or tubes of small bore. It is essentially a method of substitution employing a column of mercury of constant volume as the gauge for comparing the capacities of different parts of the tube. A pre- cisely similar method, employing a pair of microscopes at a fixed distance apart as a standard of length, is applicable to the calibration of a divided scale. The interval to be calibrated is divided into a whole number of equal steps or sections, the points of division at which the corrections are to be determined are called points of calibration. Calibration of a Mercury Thermometer. — To facilitate description, we will take the case of a fine-bore tube, such as that of a ther- mometer, to be calibrated with a thread of mercury. The bore of such a tube will generally vary considerably even in the best stan- dard instruments, the tubes of which have been specially drawn and selected. The correction for inequality of bore may amount to a quarter or half a degree, and is seldom less than a tenth. In ordinary chemical thermometers it is usual to make allowance for variations of bore in graduating the scale, but such instruments present discontinuities of division, and cannot be used for accurate work, in which a finely-divided scale of equal parts is essential. The calibration of a mercury thermometer intended for work of precision is best effected after it has been sealed. A-thread of mer- cury of the desired length is separated from the column. The exact adjustment of the length of the thread requires a little manipulation. The thermometer is inverted and tapped to make the mercury run down to the top of the tube, thus collecting a trace of residual gas at the end of the bulb. By quickly reversing the thermometer the bubble passes to the neck of the bulb. If the instrument is again inverted and tapped, the thread will probably break off at the neck of the bulb, which should be previously cooled or warmed so as to obtain in this manner, if possible, a thread of the desired length. If the thread so obtained is too long or not accurate enough, it is removed to the other end of the tube, and the bulb further warmed till the mercury reaches some easily recognized division. At this point the broken thread is rejoined to the mercury column from the bulb, and a microscopic bubble of gas is condensed which generally suffices to determine the subsequent breaking of the mercury column at the same point of the tube. The bulb is then allowed to cool till the length of the thread above the point of separation is equal to the desired length, when a slight tap suffices to separate the thread. This method is difficult to work with short threads owing to deficient inertia, especially if the tube is very perfectly evacuated. A thread can always be separated by local heating with a small flame, but this is dangerous to the thermometer, it is difficult to adjust the thread exactly to the required length, and the mercury does not run easily past a point of the tube which has been locally heated in this manner. Having separated a thread of the required length, the thermo- meter is mounted in a horizontal position on a suitable support, preferably with a screw adjustment in the direction of its length. By tilting or tapping the instrument the thread is brought into position corresponding to the steps of the calibration successively, and its length in each position is carefully observed with a pair of reading microscopes fixed at a suitable distance apart. Assuming that the temperature remains constant, the variations of length of the thread are inversely as the variations of cross-section of the tube. If the length of the thread is very nearly equal to one step, and if the tube is nearly uniform, the average of the observed lengths of the thread, taking all the steps throughout the interval, is equal to the length which the thread should have occupied in each position had the bore been uniform throughout and all the divisions equal. I. — Calibration by Method of Gay Lussac. No. of Step. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ends of ) thread. observed in as many positions as possible. Proceeding in tlm manner the following numbers were obtained for the excess-length of each thread in thousandths of a degree in different position*. starting in each case with the beginning of the tin, -.id at o", ami moving it on by steps of l°. The observations in tin- lirst column are toe excess-lengths of the thread of 1° already given in illustration of the method of Gay Lussac. The other columns give the corresponding observations with the longer threads. The simplest and most symmetrical method of solving these observations, so as to find the errors of each step in terms of the whole interval, is to obtain the differences of the steps in pairs by subtracting each observation from the one TABLE II.— Complete Calibration of Interval of 10° in 10 Steps. Lengths of Threads. 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° 9° Observed excess- o" -28 -3* -67 -62 — n — '5 -48 — 2 - 8 lengths of threads, 1° -33 — 21 -47 -28 + '4 - 8 — 22 +21 +24 in various post- 2° -«7 + 2 - 8 + I +26 +23 + 6 +58 tions, the begin- 3" - 9 +26 + 5 - 3 +41 +36 +28 ning of the thread 4" + 6 +.V - 7 + 4 +45 +49 being set near the 5° - 3 + 5 -15 - 6 +43 points. 6" — 30 + 7 -16 + 2 7" — I +23 + 10 8" - 4 +29 9° + 5 above it. This method eliminates the unknown lengths of the threads, and gives each observation approximately its due weight. Subtracting the observations in the second line from those in the first, we obtain a series of numbers, entered in column I of the next table, representing the excess of step (i) over each of the other steps. The sum of these differences is ten times the error of the first step, •nee by hypothesis the sum of the errors of all the steps is zero in terms of the whole interval. The numbers in the second column of Table III. are similarly obtained by subtracting the third line from the second in Table II., each difference being inserted in its appropriate place in the table. Proceeding in this way we find the excess of each interval over those which follow it. The table is completed by a diagonal row of zeros representing the difference of each step from itself, and by repeating the numbers already found in symmetrical positions with their signs changed, since the excess of any step, say 6 over 3, is evidently equal to that of 3 over 6 with the sign changed. The errors of each step having been found by adding the columns, and dividing by 10, the corrections at each point of the calibration arc deduced as before. ampoules, were calibrated by Chappuis in five sections of 20° each, to determine the corrections at the points 20°, 40°, 60°, 80°, which may be called the " principal point! " of the calibration, in terms of the fundamental Interval, hach section of 20° was subsequently calibrated in steps of 2°, the corrections being at first referred, as in the example already given, to the mean degree of the section itself, and being afterwards expressed, by a simple transformation, in terms of the fundamental interval, by means of the corrections already found for the ends of the seel ion. Supposing, for instance, that the corrections at the points o° and 10° of Table III. are not zero, but C° and C' respectively, the correction C» at any intermediate point n will evidently be given by the formula, C.-Ci+cn+(C'-C>/io . . . (3) where c, is the correction already given in the table. If the corrections arc required to the thou- sandth of a degree, it is necessary to tabulate the results ot the calibration at much more frequent intervals than 2°, since the correction, even of a good thermometer, may change by as much as 20 or 30 thousandths in 2°. To save the labour and difficulty of calibrating with shorter threads, the corrections at inter- mediate points are usually calculated by a formula of interpolation. This leaves much to be desired, as the section of a tube often changes very suddenly and capriciously. It is probable that the graphic method gives equally good results with less labour. Slide-Wire. — The calibration of an electrical TABLE III. — Solution of Complete Calibration. slide-wire into parts of equal resistance is precisely analogous to that of a capillary tube into parts of equal volume. The Carey Foster method, employing short steps of equal resistance, effected by trans- ferring a suitable small resistance from c>ne side of the slide-wire to the other, is exactly analogous to the Gay Lussac method, and suffers from the same defect of the accumulation of small errors unless steps of several different lengths are used. The calibration of a slide-wire, however, is much less troublesome than that of a thermometer tube for several reasons. It is easy to obtain a wire uniform to one part in 500 or even less, and the section is not liable to capricious variations. In all work of precision the slide-wire is supplemented by auxiliary resistances by which the scale may be indefinitely extended. In accurate electrical thermometry, for example, the slide-wire itself would correspond to only I °, or less, of the whole scale, which is less than a single step in the calibration of a mercury thermometer, so that an accuracy of a thousandth of a degree can generally be obtained without any calibration of the slide-wire. In the rare cases in which it is necessary to employ a long slide-wire, such as the cylinder potentiometer of Latimer Clark, the calibration is best effected by comparison with a standard, Se No I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 i 0 - 5 + " + 20 +34 +25 + 7 +26 + 23 +32 2 + 5 o + 16 +23 +39 +29 + 12 +31 +28 +37 3 -ii -16 o + 8 +24 + 13 - 4 + 15 + 13 +22 4 — 20 -23 - 8 o + 15 + 5 — 12 + 7 + 4 + '3 5 -34 -39 -24 -15 o - 9 -26 - 8 — 10 — 2 6 -25 -29 -«3 - 5 + 9 0 -17 + 2 — i + 8 7 - 7 — 12 + 4 + 12 +26 + «7 0 + 19 + 16 +26 8 -26 -3» -'5 - 7 + 8 — 2 -19 o - 3 + 6 9 -23 ' -28 -«3 - 4 + 10 + I -16 + 3 o + 9 10 -32 -37 — 22 -«3 + 2 - 8 -26 - 6 - 9 o Error of step. -17-3 — 22 -O - 6-4 + 1-9 + 16-7 + 7-1 — IO-I + 8-9 + 6-1 + 15-1 Correc- • • - + 17-3 +39-3 +45-7 +43-8 +27-1 + 20-0 +30-1 +21-2 + 15-1 0 The advantages of this method are the simplicity and symmetry of the work of reduction, and the accuracy of the result, which exceeds that of the Gay Lussac method in consequence of the much larger number of independent observations. It may be noticed, for instance, that the correction at point 5 is 27-1 thousandths by the complete calibration, which is 2 thousandths less than the value 29 obtained by the Gay Lussac method, but agrees well with the value 27 thousandths obtained by taking only the first and last observations with the thread of 5°. The disadvantage of the method lies in the great number of observations required, and in the labour of adjusting so many different threads to suitable lengths. It is probable that sufficiently good results may be obtained with much less trouble by using fewer threads, especially if more care is taken in the micrometric determination of their errors. The method adopted for dividing up the fundamental interval of any thermometer into sections and steps for calibration may be widely varied, and is necessarily modified in cases where auxiliary bulbs or " ampoules " are employed. The Paris mercury-standards, which read continuously from o" to loo° C., without intermediate such as a Thomson- Varlcy slide-box. Graphic Representation of Resttlts. — The results of a calibration are often best represented by means of a correc- tion curve, such as that illustrated in the diagram, which is plotted to repre- sent the corrections found in Table III. The abscissa of such a curve is the read- ing of the instrument to be corrected. The ordinate is the correction to be added to the observed reading to reduce to a uniform scale. The corrections are plotted in the figure in terms of the whole section, taking the correction to be zero at the beginning and end. As a matter of fact the corrections at these points in terms of the fundamental in- terval were found to be -29 and -9 thousandths respectively. The correction curve is transformed to give corrections in terms of the fundamental interval by ruling a straight line joining the points + 29 and +9 respectively, and reckoning the ordinates from this line instead of from the base-line. Or the curve may be replotted with the new ordinates thus obtained. In draw- ing the curve from the corrections obtained at the points of calibration, the exact form of the curve is to some extent a matter of taste, but the curve should generally be drawn as smoothly as possible on the assumption that the changes are gradual and continuous. The ruling of the straight line across the curve to express the corrections in terms of the fundamental interval, corresponds to the first part of the process of calibration mentioned above under the term " Standardization." It effects the reduction of the CALICO— CALICUT readings to a common standard, and may be neglected if relative values only are required. A precisely analogous correction occurs in the case of electrical instruments. A potentiometer, for instance, if correctly graduated or calibrated in parts of equal resistance, will give correct relative values of any differences of 50 «O 30- ZO 1O \ 12345678 CALIBRATION CURVE. potential within its range if connected to a constant cell to supply the steady current through the slide-wire. But to determine at any time the actual value of its readings in volts, it is necessary to standardize it, or determine its scale-value or reduction-factor, by comparison with a standard cell. A very neat use of the calibration curve has been made by Professor W. A. Rogers in the automatic correction of screws of divid- ing machines or lathes. It is possible by the process of grinding, as applied by Rowland, to make a screw which is practically perfect in point of uniformity, but even in this case errors may be introduced by the method of mounting. In the production of divided scales, and more particularly in the case of optical gratings, it is most im- portant that the errors should be as small as possible, and should be automatically corrected during the process of ruling. With this object a scale is ruled on the machine, and the errors of the un- corrected screw are determined by calibrating the scale. A metal template may then be cut out in the form of the calibration-correc- tion curve on a suitable scale. A lever projecting from the nut which feeds the carriage or the slide-rest is made to follow the contour of the template, and to apply the appropriate correction at each point of the travel, by turning the nut through a small angle on the screw. A small periodic error of the screw, recurring regularly at each revolution, may be similarly corrected by means of a suitable cam or eccentric revolving with the screw and actuating the template. This kind of error is important in optical gratings, but is difficult to determine and correct. Calibration by Comparison with a Standard. — The commonest and most generally useful process of calibration is the direct comparison of the instrument with a standard over the whole range of its scale. It is necessary that the standard itself should have been already calibrated, or else that the law of its indications should be known. A continuous current ammeter, for instance, can be calibrated, so far as the relative values of its readings are concerned, by comparison with a tangent galvanometer, since it is known that the current in this instrument is proportional to the tangent of the angle of deflection. Similarly an alternating current ammeter can be calibrated by comparison with an electro- dynamometer, the reading of which varies as the square of the current. But in either case it is neccessary, in order to obtain the readings in amperes, to standardize the instrument for some particular value of the current by comparison with a voltameter, or in some equivalent manner. Whenever possible, ammeters and voltmeters are calibrated by comparison of their readings with those of a potentiometer, the calibration of which can be reduced to the comparison and adjustment of resistances, which is the most accurate of electrical measurements. The commoner kinds of mercury thermometers are generally calibrated and graduated by comparison with a standard. In many cases this is the most convenient or even the only possible method. A mercury thermometer of limited scale reading between 250° and 400 ° C., with gas under high pressure to prevent the separation of the mercury column, cannot be calibrated on itself, or by comparison with a mercury standard possessing a fundamental interval, on account of difficulties of stem exposure and scale. The only practical method is to compare its readings every few degrees with those of a platinum thermometer under the condi- tions for which it is to be used. This method has the advantage of combining all the corrections for fundamental interval, &c., with the calibration correction in a single curve, except the correction for variation of zero which must be tested occasionally at some point of the scale. AUTHORITIES. — Mercurial Thermometers: Guillaume, Thermo- metrie de Precision (Paris, 1889), gives several examples and refer- ences to original memoirs. The best examples of comparison and testing of standards are generally to be found in publications of Standards Offices, such as those of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures at Paris. Dial Resistance- Box: Griffiths, Phil. Trans. A, 1893; Platinum Thermometry-Box: J. A. Marker and P. Chappuis, Phil. Trans. A, 1900; Thomson- Varley Potentiometer and Binary Scale Box: Callendar and Barnes, Phil. Trans. A, 1901. (H. L. C.) CALICO, a general name given to plain cotton cloth. The word was spelt in various forms, including " calicut," which shows its derivation from the Indian city of Calicut or Kolikod, a seaport in the presidency of Madras, and one of the chief ports of intercourse with Europe in the i6th century, where cotton cloths were made. The name seems to have been applied to all kinds of cotton cloths imported from the East. In England it is now applied particularly to grey or bleached cotton cloth used for domestic purposes, and, generally, to any fairly heavy cotton cloth without a pattern. In the United States there is a special application to printed cloth " of a coarser quality than muslin." In England " printed calico " is a comprehensive term. CALICUT, a city of British India, in the Malabar district of Madras; on the coast, 6 m. N. of Beypur. In 1901 the popula- tion was 76,981, showing an increase of 14% in the decade. The weaving of cotton, for which the place was at one time so famous that its name became identified with its calico, is no longer of any importance. Calicut is of considerable antiquity; and about the yth century it had its population largely increased by the immigration of the Moplahs, a fanatical race of Mahom- medans from Arabia, who entered enthusiastically into com- mercial life. The Portuguese traveller Pero de Covilham (q.v.) visited Calicut in 1487 and described its possibilities for European trade; and in May 1498 Vasco da Gama, the first European navigator to reach India, arrived at Calicut. At that time it was a very flourishing city, and contained several stately buildings, among which was especially mentioned a Brahminical temple, not inferior to the largest monastery in Portugal. Vasco da Gama tried to establish a factory, but he met with persistent hostility from the local chief (zamorin), and a similar attempt made by Cabral two years later ended in the destruction of the factory by the Moplahs. In revenge the Portuguese bombarded the town, but no further attempt was made for some years to establish a trading settlement there. In 1509 the marshal Don Fernando Coutinho made an un- successful attack on the city; and in the following year it was again assailed by Albuquerque with 3000 troops. On this occasion the palace was plundered and the town burnt; but the Portuguese were finally repulsed, and fled to their ships after heavy loss. In the following year they concluded a peace with the zamorin and were allowed to build a fortified factory on the north bank of the Kallayi river, which was however again, and finally, abandoned in 1525. In 1615 the town was visited by an English expedition under Captain Keeling, who concluded a treaty with the zamorin; but it was not until 1664 that an English trading settlement was established by the East India Company. The French settlement, which still exists, was founded in 1698. The town was taken in 1765 by Hyder Ali, who expelled all the merchants and factors, and destroyed the cocoa-nut trees, sandal-wood and pepper vines, that the country reduced to ruin might present no temptation to the cupidity of Europeans. In 1782 the troops of Hyder were driven from Calicut by the British; but in 1788 it was taken and destroyed by his son Tippoo, who carried off the inhabitants to Beypur and treated them with great cruelty. In the latter part of 1790 the country was occupied by the British; and under the treaty concluded in 1792, whereby Tippoo was deprived of half his dominions, Calicut fell to the British. After this event the CALIFORNIA inhabitants relumed and rebuilt the town, which in 1800 con- sisted of 5000 houses. As the administrative headquarters of the district, Calicut maintains its historical importance. It is served by the Madras railway, and is the chief seaport on the Malabar coast, and the principal exports are coffee, timber and coco-nut products. There are factories for coffee-cleaning, employing several hundred hands; for coir-pressing and timber-cutting. The town has a cotton-mill, a saw-mill, and tile, coffee and oil works. A detach- ment of European troops is generally stationed here to overawe the fanatical Moplahs. CALIFORNIA, one of the Pacific Coast states of the United States of America, physically one of the most remarkable, economically one of the more independent, and in history and social life one of the most interesting of the Union. It is bounded N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada and Arizona, from which last it is separated by the Colorado river, and S. by the Mexican province of Lower California. The length of its medial line id S. is about 780 m., its breadth varies from 150 to 350 m., and its total area is 158,397 sq. m., of which 2205 are water surface. In size it ranks second among the states of the Union. The coast is bold and rugged and with very few good harbours; San Diego and San Francisco bays being exceptions. The coast line is more than 1000 m. long. There are eight coast islands, all of inconsiderable size, and none of them as yet in any way important. Physiography.— The physiography of the state is simple; its main features are few and bold: a mountain fringe along the ocean, another mountain system along the east border, between them — closed in at both ends by their junction — a splendid valley of imperial extent, and outside all this a great area of barren, arid lands, belonging partly to the Great Basin and partly to the Open Basin region. Along the Pacific, and some 20-40 m. in width, runs the mass of the Coast Range, made up of numerous indistinct chains — most of which have localized individual names — that are broken down into innumerable ridges and spurs, and small valleys drained by short streams of rapid fall. The range is cut by numerous fault lines, some of which betray evidence of recent activity; it is probable that movements along these faults cause the earthquake tremors to which the region is subject, all of which seem to be tectonic. The altitudes of the Coast Range vary from about 2000 to 8000 ft. ; in the neighbourhood of San Francisco Bay the culminating peaks are about 4000 ft. in height (Mount Diablo, 3856 ft.; Mount St Helena, 4343 ft.), and to the north and south the elevation of the ranges increases. In the east part of the state is the magnificent Sierra Nevada, a great block of the earth's crust, faulted along its eastern side and tilted up so as to have a gentle back slope to the west and a steep fault escarpment facing east, the finest mountain system of the United States. The Sierra proper, from Lassen's Peak to Tehachapi Pass in Kern county, is about 430 m. long (from Mt. Shasta in Siskiyou county to Mt. San Jacinto in Riverside county, more than 600 m.). It narrows to the north and the altitude declines in the same direction. Far higher and grander than the Coast Range, the Sierra is much less complicated, being indeed essentially one chain of great simplicity of structure. It is only here and there that a double line of principal summits exists. The slope is everywhere long and gradual on the west, averaging about 200 ft. to the mile. Precipitous gorges or canyons often from 2000 to 5000 ft. in depth become a more and more marked feature of the range as one proceeds north- ward; over great portions of it they average probably not more than 20 m. apart. Where the volcanic formations were spread uniformly over the flanks of the mountains, the contrast between the canyons and the plain-like region of gentle slope in which they have been excavated is especially marked and characteristic. The eastern slope is very precipitous, due to a great fault which drops the rocks of the Great Basin region abruptly downward several thousand feet. Rare passes cross the chain, opening at the foot of the mountains on east and on the west high on their flanks, 7000-10,000 ft. above the sea. Between 36° 20' and 38° the lowest gap of any kind is above oooo ft., and the average height of those actually used is probably not less than 11,000 ft. The Kearsarge, most used of all, is still higher. Very few in the entire Sierra are passable by vehicles. Some forty peaks are catalogued between 5000 and 8000 ft., and there are eleven above 14,000. The highest portion of the system is between the parallels of 36° 30' and 37° 30'; here the passes are about 12,000 ft. in elevation, and the peaks range from 13,000 ft. upward, Mount Whitney, 14,502 ft., being the highest summit of the United States, excluding Alaska. From this peak north- ward there is a gradual decline, until at the point where the Central Pacific crosses in lat. 39° 20' the elevation is only 7000 ft. Of the mountain scenery the granite pinnacles and domes of the highest Sierra opposite Owen's Lake — where there is a drop eastward into the valley of about 10,000 ft. in 10 m. the snowy volcanic cone of Mt Shasta, rising 10,000 ft. above the adjacent plains; and the lovely valleys of the Coast Range, and the south fork of the King river — all these have their charms; but most beautiful of all is the unique scenery of the Yosemite Valley (q.v.). Much of the ruggedness and beauty of the mountains is due to the erosive action of many alpine glaciers that once existed on the higher summits, and which have left behind their evidences in valleys and amphitheatres with towering walls, polished rock-expanses, glacial lakes and meadows and tumbling waterfalls. Remnants of these glaciers are still to be seen, — as notably on Mt. Shasta, — though shrunk to small dimensions. Glacial action may be studied well as far south as 36°. The canyons are largely the work of rivers, modified by glaciers that ran through them after the rivers had formed them. All of the Sierra lakes and ponds are of glacial origin and there are some thousands of them. The lower lake line is about 8000 ft. ; it is lower to the north than to the south, owing to the different climate, and the different period of glacial retrogression. Of these lakes some are fresh, and some — as those of the north-east counties — alkali. The finest of all is Tahoe, 6225 ft. above the sea, lying between the true Sierras and the Basin Ranges, with peaks on several sides rising 4000-5000 ft. above it. It is 1500 ft. deep and its waters are of extraordinary purity (containing only three grains of solid matter to the gallon). Clear Lake, in the Coast Range, is another beautiful sheet of water. It is estimated by John Muir that on an average " perhaps more than a mile" of degradation took place in the last glacial period; but with regard to the whole subject of glacial action in California as in other fields, there is considerable difference of opinion. The same authority counted 65 small residual glaciers between 36° 30' and 39°; two-thirds of them lie between 37° and 38°, on some of the highest peaks in the district of the San Joaquin, Merced, Tuolumne and Owen's rivers. They do not descend, on an average, below 11,000 ft.; the largest of all, on Mt. Shasta, descends to 9500 ft. above the sea. Volcanic action has likewise left abundant traces, especially in the northern half of the range, whereas the evidences of glacial action are most perfect (though not most abundant) in the south. Lava covers most of the northern half of the range, and there are many craters and ash-cones, some recent and of perfect form. Of these the most remarkable is Mt. Shasta. In Owen's Valley is a fine group of extinct or dormant volcanoes. Among the other indications of great geological disturbances on the Pacific Coast may also be mentioned the earthquakes to which California like the rest of the coast is liable. From 1850 to 1887 almost 800 were catalogued by Professor E. H. Holden for California, Oregon and Washington. They occur in all seasons, scores of slight tremors being recorded every year by the Weather Bureau; but they are of no importance, and even of these the number affecting any particular locality is small. From 1769 to 1887 there were 10 " destructive " and 24 other " extremely severe " shocks according to the Rossi Forel nomcn- clatural scale of intensity. In 1812 great destruction was wrought by an earthquake that affected all the southern part of the state; in 1865 the region about San Francisco was violently disturbed; in 1872 the whole Sierra and the state of Nevada were violently shaken; and in 1006 San Francisco (q.v.^ was in 8 CALIFORNIA large part destroyed by a shock that caused great damage else- where in the state. North of 40° N. lat. the Coast Range and Sierra systems unite forming a country extremely rough. The eastern half of this area is covered chiefly with volcanic plains, very dry and barren, lying between precipitous, although not very lofty, ranges; the western half is magnificently timbered, and toward the coast excessively wet. Between 35° and 36° N. lat. the Sierra at its southern end turns westward toward the coast as the Tehachapi Range. The valley is thus closed to the north and south, and is surrounded by a mountain wall, which is broken down in but a single place, the gap behind the Golden Gate at San Francisco. Through this passes the entire drainage of the interior. The length of the valley is about 450 m., its breadth averages about 40 m. if the lower foothills be included, so that the entire area is about 18,000 sq. m. The drainage basin measured from the water-partings of the enclosing mountains is some three times as great. From the mouth of the Sacramento to Redding, at the northern head of the valley, the rise is 552 ft. in 192 m., and from the mouth of the San Joaquin southward to Kern lake it is 282 ft. in 260 m. Two great rivers drain this central basin, — the San Joaquin, wh'ose valley comprises more than three-fifths of the entire basin, and the Sacramento, whose valley comprises the remainder. The San Joaquin is a very crooked stream flowing through a low mud-plain, with tule banks; the Sacramento is much less meandering, and its immediate basin, which is of sandy loam, is higher and more attractive than that of the San Joaquin. The eastward flanks of the Coast Range are very scantily forested, .and they furnish not a single stream permanent enough to reach either the Sacramento or San Joaquin throughout the dry season. On the eastern side of both rivers are various important tribu- taries, fed by the more abundant rains and melting snows of the western flank of the Sierra; but these streams also shrink greatly in the dry season. The Feather, emptying into the Sacramento river about 20 m. N. of the city of Sacramento, is the most important tributary of the Sacramento river. A striking feature of the Sacramento system is that for 200 m. north of the Feather it does not receive a single tributary of any importance, though walled in by high mountains. Another peculiar and very general feature of the drainage system of the state is the presence of numerous so-called river " sinks," where the waters disappear, either directly by evaporation or (as in Death Valley) after flowing for a time beneath the surface. These " sinks " are therefore not the true sinks of limestone regions. The popular name is applied to Owen's lake, at the end of Owen's river; to Mono lake, into which flow various streams rising in the Sierra between Mount Dana and Castle Peak; and to Death Valley, which contains the " sink " of the Amargosa river, and evidently was once an extensive lake, although now only a mud-flat in ordinary winters, and a dry, alkaline, desert plain in summer. All these lakes, and the other mountain lakes before referred to, show by the terraces about them that the water stood during the glacial period much higher than it does now. Tulare lake, which with Buena Vista lake and Kern lake receives the drainage of the southern Sierra, shows extreme local variations of shore-line, and is generally believed to have shrunk extremely since 1850, though of this no adequate proof yet exists. In 1900 it was about 200 sq. m. in area. In wet seasons it overflows its banks and becomes greatly extended in area, discharging its surplus waters into the San Joaquin; but in dry seasons the evaporation is so great that there is no such discharge. The drainage of Lassen, Siskiyou and Modoc counties has no outlet to the sea and is collected in a number of great alkaline lakes. Finally along the sea below Ft. Conception are fertile coastal plains of considerable extent, separated from the interior deserts by various mountain ranges from 5000 to 7000 ft. high, and with peaks much higher (San Bernardino, 11,600; San Jacinto, 10,800; San Antonio, 10,140). Unlike the northern Sierra, the ranges of Southern California are broken down in a number of places. It is over these passes — Soledad, 2822 ft., Cajon, San Gorgonio, 2560 ft. — that the railways cross to the coast. That part of California which lies to the south and east of the southern inosculation of the Coast Range and the Sierra com- prises an area of fully 50,000 sq. m., and belongs to the Basin Range region. For the most part it is excessively dry and barren. The Mohave desert — embracing Kern, Los Angeles and San Bernardino — as also a large part of San Diego, Imperial and Riverside counties, belong to the " Great Basin," while a narrow strip along the Colorado river is in the " Open Basin Region." They have no drainage to the sea, save fitfully for slight areas through the Colorado river. The Mohave desert is about 2000 ft. above the sea in general altitude. The southern part of the Great Basin region is vaguely designated the Colorado desert. In San Diego, Imperial and Riverside counties a number of creeks or so-called rivers, with beds that are normally dry, flow centrally toward the desert of Salton Sink or " Sea "; this is the lowest part of a large area that is depressed below the level of the sea, — at Salton 263 ft., and 275 ft. at the lowest point. In 1900 the Colorado river (q.v.) was tapped south of the Mexican boundary for water wherewith to irrigate land in the Imperial Valley along the Southern Pacific railway, adjoining Salton Sea. The river enlarged the canal, and finding a steeper gradient than that to its mouth, was diverted into the Colorado desert, flooding Salton Sea;1 and when the break in this river was closed for the second time in February 1907, though much of its water still escaped through minor channels and by seepage, a lake more than 400 sq. m. in area was left. A permanent 60 ft. masonry dam was completed in July 1907. The region to the east of the Sierra, likewise in the Great Basin province, between the crest of that range and the Nevada boundary, is very moun- tainous. Owen's river runs through it from north to south for some 180 m. Near Owen's lake the scenery is extremely grand. The valley here is very narrow, and on either side the mountains rise from 7000 to 10,000 ft. above the lake and river. The Inye range, on the east, is quite bare of timber, and its summits are only occasionally whitened with snow for a few days during the winter, as almost all precipitation is cut off by the higher ranges to the westward. Still further to the east some 40 m. from the lake is Death Valley (including Lost or Mesquite Valley) — the name a reminder of the fate of a party of " forty-niners " who perished here, by thirst or by starvation and exposure. Death Valley, some 50 m. long and on an average 20-25 m- broad from the crests of the inclosing mountain ranges (or 5-10 m. at their base), constitutes an independent drainage basin. It is below sea level, — in one place supposedly (1902) 480 ft. — and altogether is one of the most remarkable physical features of California. The mountains about it are high and bare and brilliant with varied colours. The Amargosa river, entering the valley from Nevada, disappears in the salty basin. Enormous quantities of borax, already exploited, and of nitrate of soda, are known to be present in the surrounding country, the former as almost pure borate of lime in Tertiary lake sediments. The physiography of the state is the evident determinant of its climate, fauna and flora. California has the highest land and the lowest land of the United States, the greatest variety of temperature and rainfall, and of products of the soil. Climate. — The climate is very different from that of the Atlantic coast; and indeed very different from that of any part of the country save that bordering California. Amid great variations of local weather there are some peculiar features that obtain all over the state. In the first place, the climate of the entire Pacific Coast is milder and more uniform in temperature than that of 'the states in corresponding latitude east of the mountains. Thus we have to go north as far as Sitka in 57° N. lat. to find the same mean yearly temperature as that of Halifax, Nova Scotia, in latitude 44° 39'. And going south along the coast, we find the mean temperature of San Diego 6° or 7° less than that of Vicksburg, Miss., or Charleston, S.C. The quantity of total annual heat supply at Puget Sound exceeds that at Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Cleveland or Omaha, all more than 1 In December 1904 Salton Sea was dry; in February 1906 it was occupied by a lake 60 m. long. A w *"pi., i ^L% ^^'/'v« i °ss »i,hsttt'°'1 .iv v*~^T* I^S j |fi'/v -Sfo'^ilils- yMS\2-' u ggj 5* J ) lla»& ij **" £ 3rTSfcVs. rnls&^*f ^° «i s v, >m^!^i0 CALIFORNIA 500 m. farther south; Cape Flattery, exposed the year round to cold ocean fogs, receives more heat than Kast|H>rt, Maine, which is 3° farther south and has a wanner summer. In the second place, the means of winter and summer are much nearer the mean of the year in California than in the east. This condi- tion ni things is not so marked as one goes inward from the coast; yet everywhere save in the high mountains the winters are comparatively mild. In the third place, the division of the year into two seasons — a wet one and a dry (and extremely dusty) one — marks this portion of the Pacific Coast in the most decided manner, and this natural climatic area coincides almost exactly in its extension with that of California; being truly characteristic neither of Lower California nor of the greater part of Oregon, though more so of Nevada and Arizona. And finally, in the fourth place, except on the coast the disagreeableness of the heat of summer is greatly lessened by the dryness of the air and the consequent rapidity of evaporation. Among the peculiarities of Californian climate it is not one of the least striking that as one leaves the Sacramento or San Joaquin plains and travels into the mountains it becomes warmer, at least for the first 2000 or 3000 ft. of ascent. Along both the Coast Range and the Sierra considerable rainfall is certain, although, owing to the slight snow accumula- tions of the former, its streams are decidedly variable. A heavy rain-belt, with a normal fall of more than 40 in., covers all the northern half of the Sierra and the north-west counties; shading off from this is the region of 10-20 in. fall, which covers all the rest of the state save Inyo, Kern and San Bernardino counties, Imperial county and the eastern portion of Riverside county; the precipitation of this belt is from o to 10 in. In excessively dry years the limits of this last division may include all of the state below Fresno and the entire Central Valley as well. In the mountains the precipitation increases with the altitude; above 6000 or 7000 ft. it is almost wholly in the form of snow; and this snow, melting in summer, is of immense importance to the state, supplying water once for placer mining and now for irrigation. The north-west counties are extremely wet; many localities here have normal rainfalls of 60-70 in. and even higher annually, while in extreme seasons as much as 125 in. falls. Along the entire Pacific Coast, but particularly N. of San Fran- cisco, there is a night fog from May to September. It extends but a few miles inland, but within this belt is virtually a pro- longation of the rainy season and has a marked effect on vegetation. Below San Francisco the precipitation decreases along the coast, until at San Diego it is only about 10 in. The south-east counties are the driest portions of the United States. At Ogilby, Volcano, Indio and other stations on the Southern Pacific line the normal annual precipitation is from 1-5 to 2-5 in.; and there are localities near Owen's lake, even on its very edge, that are almost dry. For days in succession when it storms along the Southern California coasts and dense rain clouds blow landwards to the mountains, leaving snow or rain on their summits, it has been observed that within a few miles beyond the ridge the contact of the desert air dissipates the remaining moisture of the clouds into light misty masses, like a steam escape in cold air. The extreme heat of the south-east is tempered by the extremely low humidity characteristic of the Great Basin, which in the interior of the two southernmost counties is very low. The humidity of places such as Fresno, Sacramento and Red Bluff in the valley varies from 48 to 58. Many places in northern, southern, central, mountain and southern coastal California normally have more than 200 perfectly clear days in a year; and many in the mountai'ns and in the south, even on the coast, have more than 250. The extreme variability in the amount of rainfall is remarkable.1 The effects of a season of drought on the dry portions of the state need not be adverted to; and as there is no rain or snow of any consequence on the mountains during summer, a succession of dry seasons may almost bare the ranges of the accumulated stock 1 During the interval from 1850 to 1872 the yearly rainfall at San Francisco ranged from 11-37 to 49-27 in ; from 1850 to 1904 the average was 22-74. ar>d the probable annual variation 4 in. of previous winter snows, thus making worse what is already bad. The Colorado desert (together with the lower Gila Valley of Arizona) is the hottest part of the United States. Along the line of the Southern Pacific the yearly extreme is frequently from 124° to 129° F. (i.e. in the shade, which is almost if not quite the greatest heat ever actually recorded in any part of the world). At the other extreme, temperatures of —20° to —36° are recorded yearly on the Central (Southern) Pacific line near Lake Tahoe. The normal annual means of the coldest localities of the state are from 37° to 44° F.; the monthly means from 20° to 65° F. The normal annual means on Indio, Mammoth Tanks, Salton and Volcano Springs are from 73-9° to 78-4 F.; the monthly means from 52-8° to 101-3° (frequently 95° to 98°). The normal trend of the annual isotherms of the state is very simple: a low line of about 40° circles the angle in the Nevada boundary line; 50° normally follows the northern Sierra across the Oregon border; lines of higher temperature enclose the Great Valley; and lines of still higher temperature — usually 60° to 70°, in hotter years 60° to 75° — run transversely across the southern quarter of the state. Another weather factor is the winds, which are extremely regular in their movements. There are brisk diurnal sea-breezes, and seasonal trades and counter-trades. Along the coast an on-shore breeze blows every summer day; in the evening it is replaced by a night-fog, and the cooler air draws down the mountain sides in opposition to its movement during the day. In the upper air a dry off-shore wind from the Rocky Mountain plateau prevails throughout the summer; and in winter an on- shore rain wind. The last is the counter-trade, the all-year wind of Alaska and Oregon; it prevails in winter even off Southern California. There is the widest and most startling variety of local climates. At Truckee, for example, lying about 5800 ft. above the sea near Lake Tahoe, the lowest temperature of the year may be— 25° F. or colder, when 70 m. westward at Rocklin, which lies in the foothills about 250 ft. above the sea, the mercury does not fall below 28°. Snow never falls at Rocklin, but falls in large quantity at Truckee; ice is the crop of the one, oranges of the other, at the same time. There are points in Southern California where one may actually look from sea to desert and from snow to orange groves. Distance from the ocean, situation with reference to the mountain ranges, and altitude are all important determinants of these climatic differences; but of these the last seems to be most important. At any rate it may be said that generally speaking the maximum, minimum and mean temperatures of points of approximately equal altitude are respectively but slightly different in northern or southern California.2 Death Valley surpasses for combined heat and aridity any meteorological stations on earth where regular observations are taken, although for extremes of heat it is exceeded by places in the Colorado desert. The minimum daily temperature in summer is rarely below 70° F. and often above 00° F. (in the shade), while the maximum may for days in succession be as high as 120° F. A record of 6 months (1891) showed an average daily relative humidity of 30-6 in the morning and 15-6 in the evening, and the humidity sometimes falls to 5. Yet the surrounding country is not devoid of vegetation. The hills are very fertile when irrigated, and the wet season develops a variety of perennial herbs, shrubs and annuals. Fauna. — California embraces- areas of every life-zone of North America: of the boreal, the Hudsonian and Canadian subzones; of the transition, the humid Pacific subzone; of the upper austral, the arid or upper Sonoran subzone; of the lower austral, the arid or lower Sonoran; of the tropical, the " dilute arid " subzone. As will be inferred from the above * The means for Los Angeles and Red Bluff, of Redding and Fresno, of San Diego and Sacramento, of San Francisco or Monterey and Independence, are respectively about the same; and all of them lie between 56° and 63" F. The places mentioned are scattered over 3§° of longitude and 6j° of latitude. V. 10 10 CALIFORNIA account of temperature, summer is longer in the north, and localities in the Valley have more hours of heat than do those of south California. Hence that climatic characteristic of the entire Pacific Coast — already referred to and which is of extreme importance in determining the life-zones of California — the great amount of total annual heat supply at comparatively high latitudes. A low summer temperature enables northern species to push far southward, while the high heat total of the year enables southern species to push far north. The resultant intermingling of forms is very marked and characteristic of the Pacific Coast states. The distribution of life-zones is primarily a matter of altitude and corresponds to that of the isotherms. The mountain goat and mountain sheep live in the Sierran upper-land, though long ago well-nigh exterminated. The Douglas red squirrel is ubiquitous in the Sierran forests and their most conspicuous inhabitant. White-tailed deer and especially black-tails are found on the high Sierra; the mule deer, too, although its habitat is now mainly east of the range, on the plateau, is also met with. Grizzly, black, cinnamon and brown bears are all Californian species once common and to-day rare. When Americans began to rule in California elk and antelope herded in great numbers in the Great Valley; the former may to-day sometimes be seen, possibly, in the northern forests, and the latter occasionally cross into the state from Nevada. The sage-hen is abundant on the eastern flank of the Sierra. Grouse, quail, crows and woodpeckers (Melanerpes formicivorus) furnish species characteristic of the state. There are various species of ground-squirrels and gophers, which are very abundant. Noteworthy in the animal life of the lower Sonoran and tropic region are a variety of snakes and lizards, desert rats and mice; and, among birds, the cactus wren, desert thrasher, desert sparrow, Texas night-hawk, mocking-bird and ground cuckoo or road runner (Geococcyx Calif ornianus). The California vulture, the largest flying bird in North America and fully as large as the Andean condor, is not limited to Cali- fornia but is fairly common there. In the zoology and botany of California as of the rest of the Pacific Coast, the distinctions between the upper austral and humid transition zones are largely obliterated; and as one passes southward into the arid lands, life forms of both these zones intermingle with those of the arid transition. Fish are abundant. The United States fish commission, and an active state commission established in 1869, have done much to preserve and increase this source of food. In 1890 it was esti- mated that the yield of the 7000 m. of coast of the three Pacific states was about two-thirds that of New England's 500 m. , — about $10,000,000 annually, or 23,000,000 fb in 1800. Since then the output has greatly increased in all three Pacific states. Of the total, California in 1904 yielded between a quarter and a third. A third of her fish comes from the Sacramento river. Some 230 — more or less — marine food fishes are to be found in the market at San Francisco. The exports of fish from that port from 1892- 1899 were valued at from $2,000,000 to $2,500,000 annually. Native oysters are small and of peculiar flavour; eastern varieties also are fattened, but not bred in California waters. Shrimp are abundant; the shrimp fishers are Chinese and four- fifths of the catch is exported to China. Sturgeon were once the cheapest fish after salmon; to-day, despite all efforts to increase the supply, they are the dearest. Salmon, once threatened with extinction, have been saved, maintained in good supply, and indeed have probably regained their pristine abundance. Shad and striped bass are both very abundant and cheap. Black bass, flounders, terrapin, sea-turtles, perch, turbot, sole and catfish are also common. Great herds of seals once lay like toll-gatherers off the Golden Gate and other bays of the coast, taking a large share of the salmon and other fish; but they are no longer common. The sea-lions sometimes raid the rivers for 100 m. inland. They have greatly increased since hunting them for their hides and oil ceased to be profitable, and thousands sometimes gather on the Farallones, off the Golden Gate. Flora. — Inclusiveness of range in the distribution of vegetable life is perhaps more suggestive than the distribution of animal species. The variation is from dwarf mountain pine to giant cactus and dates. The humid transition belt is the habitat of California's magnificent forests. Nut pine, juniper and true sage-brush (Artemisia tridentata) characterize the upper Sonoran, — although the latter grows equally in the transition zone. Cereals, orchard fruits and alfalfa are of primary importance in the upper and of secondary importance in the lower Sonoran. In the arid portions of this and the tropic areas the indigenous plants are creosote, mesquite and alfileria bushes, desert acacias, paloverdes, alkali-heath, salt grass, agaves, yuccas (especially the Spanish-bayonet and Joshua tree) and cactuses. Among exotics the Australian saltbush spreads successfully over the worst alkali land. The introduction of other exotics into these zones, — made humid by irrigation, which converts them, the one into true austro-riparian the other into true humid tropical, — has revolu- tionized the agricultural, and indeed the whole, economy of California. At the two ends of Cajon Pass, only four or five kilometres apart, are the two utterly distinct floras of the Mohave desert and the San Bernardino valley. Despite the presence of the pass, plants do not spread, so great is the difference of climatic conditions. On the desert the same plant will vary in different years from 4 in. to 10 ft. in height when equally mature, according to the rainfall and other conditions of growth. Many mature plants are not taller than 0-4 to 0-8 in. The tree yucca often attains a height of 20 to 25 ft., and a diameter of 1-5 ft. About 600 species of plants were catalogued in desert California in 1891 by a government botanical party. The flora of the coast islands of California is very interesting. On Santa Cruz Professor Joseph Le Conte found 248 species, nearly all of which are distinctively Californian, 48 being peculiar to the surrounding islands and 28 peculiar to Southern California. Various other things indicate a separation of the islands from the mainland in quaternary times; since which, owing to the later southward movement on the continent of northern forms in glacial times, there has been a struggle for existence on the mainland from which the islands have largely escaped. Forests. — The forests and agricultural crops of the state de- mand particular notice. In 1900 the woodland was estimated by the United States census at 22% of the state's area, and the total stand at 200,000 million ft. of timber. The variety of forest trees is not great, but some of the California trees are unique, and the forests of the state are, with those of Oregon and Washington, perhaps the most magnificent of the world. At least the coni- ferous forests which make up nine-tenths of California's woodland surpass all others known in number of species and in the size and beauty of the trees. Forty -six species occur, namely, 32 species of pitch trees (18 pines), 12 species of the cypresses and their allies (2 sequoia), and 2 species of yews or their allies. Peculiar to California are the two species of sequoia (?.».), — the redwood (S. sempervirens) , and the big-tree (S. gigantea), remnants of an earlier age when they were common in other parts of the world. The redwood grows only in a narrow strip on the Coast Range from Southern Oregon (where there are not more than 1000 acres) down nearly to the Golden Gate, in a habitat of heavy rains and heavy fogs. They cover an area of about 2000 sq. m. almost unmixed with other species. One fine grove stands S. of San Francisco near Santa Cruz. These noble trees attain very often a height of more than 300 ft., frequently of 350 and even more, and a butt diameter of more than 15 to 20 ft., with clean, straight fluted trunks rising 200 ft. below the lowest branches. They grow in the densest timber stand known. Single acres have yielded 1,500,000 ft. B.M. of lumber, and single trees have cut as high as 100,000 ft. The total stand in 1900 was estimated by the United States census as 75,000,000,000 ft., and the ordinary stand per acre varies from 25,000 to 150,000 ft., averaging probably 60,000 ft. The redwood is being rapidly used for lumber. There is nowhere any considerable young growth from seed, although this mode of reproduction is not (as often stated) unknown; the tree will reproduce itself more than once from the stump (hence its name). In thirty years a tree has been known to grow to aheight of 80 ft. and a diameter of 1 6 in. The wood contains no pitch and much water, and in a green condition will not burn. To this fact CALIFORNIA ii it owes its immunity from the forest fires which wreak frightful havoc among the surrounding forests. As the redwood is limited to the Coast Range, so the big tree is limited wholly to the Sierra .tla. I'nlike the redwood the big tree occurs in scattered groves (ten in all) among other species. Its habitat extends some 200 m., from latitude 36° to 39°, nowhere descending much below an altitude of 5000 ft., nor rising above 8000 ft. The most northerly grove and the nearest to San Francisco is the Calavcras Grove near Stockton; the Mariposa Grove just south of the Yose- mite National Park, is a state reservation and easily accessible to tourists. The noblest groves arc near Yisalia, and are held as a national park. The average height is about 275 ft., and the diameter near the ground 20 ft ; various individuals stand over 300 ft, and a diameter of 25 ft. is not rare. One tree measures 35-7 ft. inside the bark 4 ft. above the ground, 10 ft. at 200 ft. above the ground, and is 325 ft. tall. Specimens have been cut down that were estimated to be 1300 and even 2200 years old; many trees standing arc presumably 2500 years old. It is the opinion of John Muir that the big tree would normally live 5000 years or more; that the California groves arc still in their prime; that, contrary to general ideas, the big tree was never more widely distributed than now, at least not within the past 8000 or 10,000 years; that it is not a decaying species, but that on the contrary " no tree of all the forest is more enduringly established in con- cord with climate and soil," growing like the mountain pine even on granite, and in little danger save from the greed of the lumber- man; but other excellent authorities consider it as hardly hold- ing its own, especially in the north. Three main wood belts cover the flanks of the Sierra: the lower or main pine belt, the silver fir belt, and the upper pine belt. The sugar pine, the yellow or silver pine and the Douglas spruce (considerably smaller than in Oregon and Washington), are rivals in stature and nobility, all attaining 200 ft or more when full grown; and the incense cedar reaches a height of 1 50 ft In this belt and the following one of firs the big tree also grows. The white silver fir (abies coucola) and the silver or red fir (ab. magnified), standing 200 to 250 ft., make up almost wholly the main forest belt from 5000 to 9000 ft. for some 450 m. Above the firs come the tamarack, constituting the bulk of the lower Alpine forest; the hardy long-lived mountain pine; the red cedar or juniper, growing even on the baldest rocks; the beautiful hemlock spruce; the still higher white pine, nut pine, needle pine; and finally, at 10,000 to 12,000 ft, the dwarf pine, which grows in a tangle on the earth over which one walks, and may not show for a century's growth more than a foot of height or an inch of girth. The Nevada slope of the mountains below 7 500 ft. is covered with the nut pine down to the sage plains. Its nuts are gathered in enormous amounts by the Indians for food; and it is estimated that the yearly harvest of these nuts exceeds in bulk that of all the cereals of California (John Muir). On the Sierra the underbrush is characterized by the pungent manzanita, the California buckeye and the chamiso; the last two growing equally abundantly on the Coast Range. The chamiso and the manzanita, with a variety of shrubby oaks and thorny plants, often grow together in a dense and sometimes quite impenetrable undergrowth, forming what is known as "chaparral"; if the chamiso occurs alone the thicket is a " chamisal." The elm, the hickory, the beech, the chestnut, and many others of the most characteristic and useful trees of the eastern states were originally entirely wanting in California. Oaks are abundant; they are especially characteristic of the Great Valley, where they grow in magnificent groves. Up to May 1908 national forest reserves amounted to 25,605,700 acres. The redwoods are almost wholly unprotected by law, and the big trees very inadequately protected. One of the noblest redwood areas (that of Santa Cruz county) is a state reservation (created in 1901). Even within reservations almost all the merchantable timber is owned by private in- dividuals. In addition to native trees many others — especially ornamental species — have been successfully introduced from various parts of the world. Soil. — Sand and loams in great variety, grading from mere sand to adobe, make up the soils of the state. The plains of the north-cast counties are volcanic, and those of the south-east sandy. It is impossible to say with accuracy what part of the state may properly be classed as tillable. The total farm acreage in 1900 was 28,828,951 acres, of which 41-5% were improved; since 1880 the absolute amount of improved land has remained practically constant, despite the extraordinary progress of the state in these years. Much land is too rough, too elevated or too arid ever to be made agriculturally available; but irriga- tion, and the work of the state and national agricultural bureaus in introducing new plants and promoting scientific farming, have accomplished much that once seemed impossible. The peculiarities of the climate, especially its division into two seasons, make Californian (and Southern Arizona) agriculture very different from that of the rest of the country. During the winter no shelter is necessary for live-stock, nor, during summer, for the grains that arc harvested in June and July, and may lie for weeks or months in the field. The mild, wet winter is the season of planting and growth, and so throughout the year there is a succession of crops. The dangers of drought in the long dry seasons particularly increase the uncertainties of agriculture in regions naturally arid. Irrigation was introduced in Southern California before 1780, but its use was desultory and its spread slow till after 1850. In 1900 almost 1,500,000 acres were irrigated — an increase of 46% since 1890. About half of this total was in San Joaquin Valley. California has the greatest area of irrigated land of any state in the Union, and offers the most complete utilization of resources. In the south artesian wells, and in the Great Valley the rivers of the Sierra slope, are the main source of water-supply. On nearly all lands irrigated some crops will grow in ordinary seasons without irrigation, but it is this that makes possible selection of crops; practically indispensable for all field and orchard culture in the south, save for a few moist coastal areas, it everywhere increases the yield of all crops and is practised generally all over the state. Of the acreage devoted to alfalfa in 1899, 76-2% was irrigated; of that devoted to subtropical fruits, 71-7%. Small fruits, orchard fruits, hay, garden products and grains are decreasingly dependent on irrigation; wheat, which was once California's great staple, is (for good, but not for best results) comparatively independent of it, — hence its early predominance in Californian agriculture, due to this success on arid lands since taken over for more remunerative irrigated crops. Agriculture. — The spread of irrigation and of intensive cultiva- tion, and the increase of small farms during the last quarter of the igth century, have made California what it is to-day. Agri- culture had its beginning in wheat-raising on great ranches, from 50,000 even to several hundred thousand acres in extent. A few of these, particularly in the Great Valley, are still worked, but only a few. The average size of farms in 1850 (when the large Mexican grants were almost the only farms, and these unbroken) was 4466 acres; in 1860 it was 466-4, and in 1900 only 397-4 acres. Stock ranches, tobacco plantations, and hay and grain farms, average from 800 to 530 acres, and counteract the tendency of dairy farms, beet plantations, orchards, vegetable gardens and nurseries to lower the size of the farm unit still further. The renting of large holdings prevails to a greater extent than in any other state except Texas. From 1880 to 1900 the number of farms above 500 and below 1000 acres doubled; half of the total in 1000 were smaller than 100 acres. The most remunerative and most characteristic farming to-day is diversified and intensive and on small holdings. The essential character of California's economic life has been determined by the successive predominance of grass, gold, grain and fruits. Omitting the second it may be truly said that the order of agricultural development has been mainly one of blind experi- ment or fortuitous circumstances. Staple products have changed with increasing knowledge of climatic conditions, of life-zones and of the fitness of crops; first hides and tallow, then wool, wheat, grapes (which in the early cighteen-nineties were the leading fruit), deciduous orchard fruits, and semi-tropical citrus fruits successively. Prunes were introduced in 1854, but their possibilities were only slightly appreciated for some thirty years. Of various other crops much the same is true. Of late years 12 CALIFORNIA progress has been very intelligent; in earlier years it was gained through a multitude of experiments and failures, and great pecuniary loss, and progress was a testimonial chiefly to courage and perseverance. The possibilities of the lower Sonoran and tropical areas are still imperfectly known. Nature has been niggard of rain but lavish in soil and sun. Irrigation has shown that with water, arid and barren plains, veritable deserts, may be made to bloom with immense wealth of semi-tropical fruits; and irrigation in the tropical area along the Colorado river, which is so arid that it naturally bears only desert vegetation, has made it a true humid-tropical region like Southern Florida, growing true tropical fruits. In 1899 California ranked eleventh among the states in total value of farm property ($796,527,955) and fourteenth in the total value of farm products ($131,690,606). The growth of the former from 1890 to 1900 was only 2-5%, one of the smallest increases among all the states. The pastoral period extended from 1769 to 1848. The live- stock industry was introduced by the Franciscans and flourished exceedingly. In 1834, when the .missions had already passed their best days, there were some 486,000 cattle, horses, mules and asses on the ranges, and 325,000 small animals, principally sheep. Throughout the pre-American period stock-raising was the leading industry; it built up the prosperity of the missions, largely supported the government and almost ex- clusively sustained foreign commerce. Hides and tallow were the sum and substance of Californian economy. Horses were slaughtered wholesale at times to make way for cattle on the ranges. There was almost no dairying; olive oil took the place of butter, and wine of milk, at the missions; and in general indeed the Mexicans were content with water. In the develop- ment of the state under the American regime the live-stock industry has been subordinate. A fearful drought in 1862-1864 greatly depressed it, and especially discouraged cattle ranching. Sheep then became of primary importance, until the increase of the flocks threatened ranges and forests with destruction. As late as 1876 there were some 7,000,000 sheep, in 1900 only 2,581,000, and in 1906 only 1,750,000. In the total value of all live stock (5,402,297 head) in 1900 ($65,000,000) the rank of the state was isth in the Union, and in value of dairy products in 1899 (12-84 million dollars) i2th. The live-stock industry showed a tendency to decline after 1890, and the dairy industry also, despite various things — notably irrigation and alfalfa culture — that have favoured them. Cereals replaced hides and tallow in importance after 1848. Wheat was long California's greatest crop. Its production steadily increased till about 1884, the production in 1880, the banner year, being more than 54 million bushels (32,537,360 centals). Since 1884^ its production has markedly fallen off; in 1905 the wheat crop was 17,542,013 bushels, and in 1906, 26,883,662 bushels (valued at $20,162,746). There has been a general parallelism between the amount of rain and the amount of wheat produced; but as yet irrigation is little used for this crop. In the eighth decade of the igth century, the value of the wheat product had come to exceed that of the annual output of gold. Barley has always been very important. The acreage given to it in 1899 was one-fourth the total cereal acreage, and San Francisco in 1902-1904 was the shipping point of the larger part of American exported barley, of (roughly) three-quarters in 1902, seven-eighths in 1903 and four-fifths in 1904. In 1906 California produced 38,760,000 bushels of barley, valued at $20,930,400. The great increase in the acreage of barley, which was 22-5% of the country's barley acreage in 1906, and 24-2% in 1905, is one reason for the decreased production of wheat. The level nature of the great grain farms of the valley led to the utilization of machinery of remarkable character. Combined harvesters (which enter a field of standing grain and leave this grain piled in sacks ready for shipment), steam gang-ploughs, and other farm machinery are of truly extraordinary size and efficiency. In 1899 cereals represented more than a third of the total crop acreage and crop product ($93,641,334) of the state. Wheat and other cereals are in part cut for hay, and the hay crop of 1906 was 1^33,465 tons, valued at $12,751,481. California is one of the leading hop-producing states of the Union, the average annual production since 1901 being more than 10,000,000 Ib. The product of sugar beets increased between 1888 and 1902 from 1910 to 73,761 tons (according to the state board of trade), and in 1906-1907 (according to the department of agriculture) it was 671,571 tons, from which 185,480,000 ft of sugar was manufactured. In this industry California is much ahead of all other states. Truck gardening for export is an assured industry, especially in the north. Great quantities of vegetables, fresh and canned, are shipped yearly, and the same is true on a far larger scale of fruit. Vegetable exports more than doubled between 1894 and 1903. In 1899 hay and grain represented slightly more than a third of the farm acreage and capital and also of the value of all farm products; live-stock and dairy farms represented slightly more than half the acreage, and slightly under 30 % of the capital and produce; fruit farms absorbed 6-2% of the acreage and 27% of the capital, and returned 22-5% of the value of farm produce. Fruit-growing. — Horticulture is now the principal industry, and in this field California has no rival in the United States, although ranking after Florida in the growth of some tropical or semi-tropical fruits, — pineapples, guava, limes, pomeloes or grape-fruit and Japanese persimmons. In 1899 California's output of fruit was more than a fifth of that of the whole Union. The supremacy of the state is established in the growth of oranges, lemons, citrons, olives, figs, almonds, Persian (or English) walnuts, plums and prunes, grapes and raisins, nectarines, apricots and pomegranates; it also leads in pears and peaches, but here its primacy is not so assured. Southern California by no means monopolizes the warm-zone fruits. Oranges, lemons and walnuts come chiefly from that section, but citrus fruits grow splendidly in the Sierra foothills of the -Sacramento Valley, and indeed ripen earlier there than in the southern district. Almonds, as well as peaches, pears, plums, cherries and apricots, come mainly from the north. Over half of the prune crop comes from Santa Clara county, and the bulk of the raisin output from Fresno county. Olives thrive as far north as the head of the Great Valley, growing in all the valleys and foothills up to 1500 or 2000 ft. They were introduced by the Franciscans (as were various other subtropical fruits, pears and grapes) , but their scientific betterment and commercial import- ance date from about 1885. They grow very abundantly and of the finest quality; for many years poor methods of preparation prejudiced the market against the Californian product, but this has ceased to be the case. The modern orange industry practic- ally began with the introduction into Southern California in 1873 of two seedless orange trees from Brazil; from their stock have been developed by budding millions of trees bearing a seedless fruit known as the " Washington navel," which now holds first rank in American markets; other varieties, mainly seedlings, are of great but secondary importance. Shipments continue the year round. There has been more than one horticultural excitement in California, but especially in orange culture, which was for a time almost as epidemic a fever as gold seeking once was. By reason of the co-operative effort demanded for the large problems of irrigation, packing and marketing, the citrus industry has done much for the permanent development of the state, and its extraordinary growth made it, towards the close of the i gth century, the most striking and most potent single influence in the growth of agriculture. State legislation has advanced the fruit interest in all possible ways. Between 1872 and 1903 exports of canned fruits increased from 91 to 94,205 short tons; between 1880 and 1903 the increase of dried fruit ex- ports was from 295 to 149,531 tons; of fresh deciduous fruits, from 2590 to 101,199; of raisins, from 400 to 39,963; of citrus fruits, from 458 to 299,623; of wines and brandies between 1891 and 1903, from 47,651 to 97,332 tons. Of the shipments in 1903 some 44 % were from Southern California, — i.e. from the seven southernmost counties. Grape culture has a great future in California. Vines were CALIFORNIA first introduced by the Franciscans in 1771 from Spain, and untilaftenS6o" Mission "grapes were practically the only stock in California. Afterwards many hundreds of European varii-t irs were introduced with great success. " The state has such a variety of soil, slope, elevation, temperature and climatic conditions as to reproduce, somewhere within its borders, any wine now manufactured" (United States Census, IQOO); but the experience has not yet divided the state into districts of specialized produce, nor determined just how far indigenous American vines may profitably be used, either as base or graftings, with European varieties. Grapes are grown very largely over the state. Raisins do well as far north as Yolo county, but do best in Madera, Jesus, King, Tulare and San Diego counties. The product is more than sufficient for the markets of the United States. Dry wine grapes do best in the counties around San Francisco Bay, on unirrigated lands; while sweet wine stocks do best in Yolo, San Joaquin and the counties of the raisin grape, and on irrigated lands. In 1 899 California produced more than two-thirds in value ($3,937,871) and three-fourths in bulk (19.020,258 gallons) of the total wine output of the United States. The value of product more than sextupled from 1880 to 1900. In quantity the product was more than four times the combined product of all other states. The better California wines are largely sold under French labels. Brandies are an important product. They are made chiefly from grapes, and are used to fortify wines. It was officially estimated that in the spring of 1904 there were some 227,000 acres of vineyards in the state, of which exactly five-tenths were in wine grapes and four-tenths in raisin grapes. Cold.— Between the pastoral period and the era of wheat was the golden epoch of Californian history. The existence of gold had long been suspected, and possibly known, in California before 1848, and there had been desultory washings in parts where there was very little to reward prospectors. The first perfectly authenticated discovery was made near Los Angeles in 1842. The discovery of real historical importance was made in January 1848 (the 24th is the correct date) at John A. Sutler's mill, on the south fork of the American river near Coloma, by a workman, James W. Marshall (1810-1885). His monument now marks the spot. From 1848 to the ist of January 1003, according to the state mining bureau, California produced $1,379,275,408 in gold. There were two periods of intense excitement. The first ended in 1854, at which time there was a decided reaction throughout the United States in regard to mining matters. The Californian discoveries had given rise fo a general search for metalliferous deposits in the Atlantic states, and this had been followed by wild speculations. At the time of their greatest productiveness, from 1850 to 1853, the highest yield of the washings was probably not less than $65,000,000 a year; accord- ing to the state mining bureau the average production from 1851-1854 was $73,570,087 ($81,294,270 in 1852, the banner year), and from 1850-1861 $55,882,861, never falling below $50,000,000. The estimates of other competent authorities differ considerably, and generally are somewhaj less generous than these figures. At first the diggings were chiefly along the rivers. These were " flumed," — that is, the water was diverted by wooden flumes from the natural channel and the sand and gravel in the bed were washed. All the " gulches " or ravines lead- ing down into the canyons were also worked over, with or without water. These were the richest " placers," but in them the gold was very unequally distributed. Those who first got possession of the rich bars on the American, Yuba, Feather, Stanislaus and the other smaller streams in the heart of the gold region, made sometimes from $i to $5000 a day; but after one rich spot was worked out it might be days or weeks before another was found. In 1848 $5oc-$7oo a day was not unusual luck; but, on the other hand, the income of the great majority of miners was certainly far less than that of men who seriously devoted themselves to trade or even to common labour. Many extraordinary nuggets were found, varying from $i to $20,000 in value. The economic stimulus given by such times may be imagined. For several years gold-dust was a regular circulating medium in the cities as well as in the mining districts of the state. An ounce of dust in 1848 frequently wrni for $4 instead of $17; for a number of years traders in dust were sure of a margin of several dollars, as for example in private coinage, mints for which were common by 1851. From the record of actual exports and a comparison of the most authori- tative estimates of total production, it may be said that from 1848 to 1856 the yield was almost certainly not less than $450,000,000, and that about 1870 the billion dollar mark had been passed. Just at this time came the highest point and the sudden fall of the second great mining fever of the state. This was a stock speculation based on the remarkable output ($300,000,000 in 20 years) of the silver " bonanzas " of the Comstock lode at Virginia City, Nevada, which were opened and financed by San Francisco capitalists. The craze pervaded all classes. Shares that at first represented so many dollars per foot in a tangible mine were multiplied and remultiplied until they came to represent paper thicknesses or almost nothing, yet still their prices mounted upward. In April 1872 came the revulsion; there was a shrinkage of $60,000,000 in ten days; then in 1873 a tremendous advance, and in 1875 a final and disastrous collapse; in ten years thereafter the stock of the Comstock lode shrank from $3,000,000 to $2,000,000. This Comstock fever belongs to Californian rather than to Nevadan history, and is one of the most extraordinary in mining annals. First the " rocker," then the " torn," the " flume," and the hydraulic stream were the tools of the miner. Into the " rocker " and the " torn " the miner shovelled dirt, rocking it as he poured in water, catching the gold on riffles set across the bottom of his box; thus imitating in a wooden box the work of nature in the rivers. The " flume " enabled him to dry the bed of a stream while he worked over its gravels. The hydraulic stream came into use as early as 1852 (or 1853) when prospecting of the higher ground made it certain that the " deep " or " high " gravels — i.e. the detrital deposits of tertiary age — contained gold, though in too small quantities to be profitably worked in the ordinary way. The hydraulic process received an immense development through successive improvements of method and machinery. In this method tremendous blasts of powder, sometimes twenty-five or even fifty tons, were used to loosen the gravel, which was then acted on by the jet of water thrown from the " pipes." To give an idea of the force of the agent thus employed it may be stated that when an eight-inch nozzle is used under a heavy head, more than 3000 ft. may be discharged in a minute with a velocity of 150 ft. per second. The water as it thus issues from the nozzle feels to the touch like metal, and the strongest man cannot sensibly affect it with a crowbar. A gravel bank acted on by such tremendous force crumbled rapidly, and the disintegrated material could be run readily through sluices to the " dumps." Hydraulic mining is no longer practised on the scale of early days. The results were wonderful but disastrous, for the " dumps " were usually river-beds. From 1870-1879 the bed of Bear river was raised in places in its lower course 97 ft. by the detritus wash of the hydraulic mines, and that of Sleepy Hollow Creek 136 ft. The total filling up to that time on the streams in this vicinity had been from 100 to 250 ft., and many thousand acres of fine farming land were buried under gravel, — some 16,000 on the lower Yuba alone. For many years the mining interests were supreme, and agri- culture, even after it had become of great importance, was invariably worsted when the two clashed; but in 1884 the long and bitter " anti-debris "or" anti-slickins " fight ended in favour of the farmers. In 1893 the United States government created a California Debris Commission, which has acted in unison with the state authorities. Permits for hydraulic mining are granted by the commission only when all gravel is satisfactorily impounded and no harm is done to the streams; and the improvement of these, which was impossible so long as limits were not set to hydraulic mining, can now be effectively ad vauced. Quartz mining began as early as 1851. In 1906 some three-fourths CALIFORNIA of the gold output was from such mines. Quartz veins are very often as good at a depth of 300x3 ft. as at the surface. A remarkable feature of recent years (especially since 1900) is gold " dredging." Thousands of acres even of orchard, vine- yard and farming land have been thus treated in recent years. Gold was being produced in 1906 in more than thirty counties. The annual output since 1875 has been about $15,000,000 to $17,000,000; in 1905, according to the Mines Report, it was $18,898,545. Colorado now excels California as a gold producer. Mineral Products. — California produces more than forty mineral substances that are of commercial significance. Gold, petroleum, copper, borax and its products, clays, quicksilver and silver lead, in order of importance, representing some four- fifths of the total. From 1894 to 1902 the aggregate production increased from 20-2 to 35-1 million dollars; in 1905 it was $43,406,258. Metallic products represent about three-fourths of the total, but the feature of recent years has been the rising im- portance of hydrocarbons and gases, and of structural materials, and indeed of non-metallic products generally. The production of crude petroleum has grown very rapidly since about 1895. Oil is found from north to south over some 600 m., but especially in Southern California. The high cost of coal, which has always been a hindrance to the development of manufactures, makes the petroleum deposits of peculiar value. Their consumption increased from 4,250,000 to 35,671,000 barrels between 1900 and 1905, and the value of the product in 1905 was $8,201,846. The Kern river field is the most important in the state and one of the greatest in the world. Those of Coalinga, Santa Maria and Lompoc, and Los Angeles are next in importance. Both in 1900 and in 1905 California ranked fifth among the states of the United States in the petroleum refining industry. Copper has risen in importance in very recent years; it is mined mainly in Shasta county; the value of the state's total product in 1905 was $2,588,111. Gold mining still centres in the mountainous counties north of Tuolumne. This is the region of quartz mining. In borax (of which California's output in 1904 was 45,647 tons) and structural materials San Bernardino has a long lead. More than nine-tenths of the borax product of the country comes from about Death Valley. San Bernardino marbles have a very high repute. California was the fourth state of the Union in 1899 in the production of granite. It furnishes about two-fifths of the quicksilver of the world. This has been mined since 1824; the output was greatest from 1875-1883, when it averaged about 43,000,000 pounds. The New Almaden mine (opened in 1824) in Santa Clara county produced from 1850 to 1896 some 73,000,000 pounds. The centre of production is north and south of San Francisco Bay. Californian coal is almost wholly inferior brown lignite, together with a small quantity of bituminous coals of poor quality; the state does not produce a tenth part of the coal it consumes. Of growing importance are the gems found in California: a few diamonds in Butte county; rock crystal in Calaveras county; and tourmalines, kunzite, the rare pink beryl and bright blue topazes in San Diego county. Chrysoprase, mined near Porterville and near Visalia (Tulare county), is used partly for gems, but more largely (like the vcsuvianite found near Exeter, in the same county) for mosaic work; and there are ledges of fine rose quartz in the Coahuila mountains of Riverside county and near Lemon Cove, Tulare county. A vivid realization of the industrial revolution in the state is to be gained from the reflection that in 1875 California was pre-eminent only for gold and sheep; that the aggregate mineral output thirty years later was more than a third greater than then, and that nevertheless the value of farm produce at the opening of the 2oth century exceeded by more than $100,000,000 the value of mineral produce, and exceeded by $50,000,000 the most generous estimate of the largest annual gold output in the annals of the state. Manufactures. — Previous to 1860 almost every manufactured article used in the state was imported from the east or from Europe. Dairy products, for example, for whose production good facilities always existed, were long greatly neglected, and not for two decades at least after 1848 was the state independent in this respect. The high cost of coal, the speculative attractions of mining, and the high wages of labour, handicapped the development of manufactures in early years. The first continued to be a drag on such industries, until after 1895 the increasing use of crude petroleum obviated the difficulty. Several remark- able electric power and lighting plants utilize the water power of the mountains.1 Geographic isolation has somewhat fostered state industries. The value of gross manufactured products increased 41 -9% from 1889 to 1899. In the latter year California ranked 1 2th among the states in the gross value of all manufac- tures ($302,874,761); the per-capita value of manufactured and agricultural products being $293, — $89 of the latter, $204 of the former. Of the population 61 % were engaged in manufacturing. Fourteen industries represented from 41% to 45% of the employees, wages, capital and product of the aggregate manu- facturers of the state. The leading ones in order of importance and the value of product in millions of dollars were: the manu- facture of railway, foundry, and machine shop products (19-6 million dollars), lumber and timber industries (18-57), sugar and molasses refining (15-91), beef slaughtering (15-72), canning and preserving (13-08), flour and grist milling (13-10), the manufacture of malt, vinous and distilled liquors (9-26), leather industries (7-40), printing and publishing (6-86). In the second, third and fifth of these industries the state ranked respectively fifth, fourth and first in the Union.2 The canning and preserving of fruits and vegetables is in the main an industry of the northern and central counties. In 1890 the state board of forestry estimated that the redwood forests were in danger of exhaustion by 1930. The redwood is a general utility lumber second only to the common white pine, and the drain on the woods has been continuous since 1850. The wood has a fine, straight and even grain; and though light and soft, is firm and extremely durable, lying, it is authoritatively asserted, for centuries in the forest without appreciable decay. It takes a beautiful polish. The colour varies from cedar colour to mahogany. A small southern belt in San Mateo, Santa Clara and Santa Cruz counties is not being commercially exploited. The annual lumber cut from 1898-1903 averaged more than 663,348,000 ft.; of the 852,638,000 ft. cut in 1903, 465,460,000 were of redwood, and 264,890,000 of yellow pine; fir and sugar pines contributing another 104,600,000, and spruce and cedar 17,670,000 ft. In 1899 California ranked i6th among the states in value of product ($13,764,647, out of a total of $566,852,984). The total cut was under ^ of i % of the estimated stand. In Humboldt county, in the redwood belt near Eureka, are probably the most modern and remarkable lumber, mills of the world. In 1900 it was estimated that lumbermen controlled somewhat less than a fifth of the timber of the state, and the same part of the redwood. After 1890 important shipyards were established near San Francisco. The most important naval station of the United 1 Small masses of water made to fall great distances and the use of turbines are important features of such plants. One on the North Yuba river at Colgate, where there is a 700 ft. fall, serves Oakland, San Jose and San Francisco, at high pressure yielding in San Francisco (220 m. away) 75 % of its power. Other plants are one at Electra (154 m. from San Francisco), and one on the San Joaquin, which delivers to Fresno 62 m. distant. 2 The 1905 census of manufactures deals only with establishments under the factory system; its figures for 1905 and the figures for 1900 reduced to the same limits are as follows: — total value of pro- ducts, 1905, $367,218,494; 1900, $257,385,521, an increase of 42-7 %; leading industries, with value of product in millions of dollars — canning and preserving, first in 1905 with 23-8 millions, third in 1900 with 13-4 millions; slaughtering and meat-packing, second in 1905 with 21-79 millions, first in 1900 with 15-71 millions; flour and grist mill products, third in 1905 with 20-2 millions, fourth in 1900 with 13-04 millions; lumber and timber, fourth in 1905 with 18-27 millions, second in 1900 with 13-71 millions; printing and publishing, fifth in 1905 with 17-4 millions, sixth in 1900 with 9-6 millions; foundry and machine shop products, sixth in 1905 with 15-7 millions, fifth in 1900 with 12-04 millions; planing mill products, seventh in 1905 with 13-9 millions, twelfth in 1900 with 4-8 millions; bread and other bakery products, eighth in 1905 with IO-6 millions, eleventh in 1900 with 4-87 millions. CALIFORNIA States on the Pacific coast is at Mare Island at the northern end of San Francisco Bay, and the private Union Iron Works, on the peninsula near San Francisco, is one of the largest shipyards of the country. The best sugar product was in 1905 exceeded only by that of Colorado and that of Michigan. In 1005 60-3 % (by value) of the wine made in the United States was made in California. The transportation facilities in California increased rapidly after 1870. The building of the Central Pacific and Union I'.uitic lines are among the romances of American railway history. They joined tracks near Ogden, Utah, in May 1869. The New Orleans line of the Southern Pacific was opened in January 1883; the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe completed its line to San Diego in 1885, and to San Francisco Bay in 1900. The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake, with trans-continental connexions at the eastern terminus, was chartered in 1901 and fully opened in March 1903. Railway mileage increased 137-3 % from 1870 to 1880, and 154-6% from 1880 to 1900. At the close of 1906 the total mileage was 6383-46 m., practically all of which is either owned or controlled by the two great trans- continental systems of the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. From 1869 to 1875 registered mail ex- changes were opened with China, Japan, Hawaii and Australia. There are now frequent mail connexions from San Francisco with Hawaii, Australasia, and eastern Asia, as well as with American ports north and south. The commerce of San Francisco amounts to some $80,000,000 or $00,000,000 yearly, about equally divided between imports and exports, until after 1905 — in 1907 the imports were valued at $54,207,011, and the exports at $jo.378,355 (less than any year since 1896). San Diego has a very good harbour, and those of San Pedro, Port Los Angeles, and Eureka are fairly good and of growing importance. Grains, lumber, fish, fruits and fruit products, petroleum, vegetables and sugar are the leading items in the commerce of San Francisco. Other ports are of very secondary importance. Navigation on the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers was very important in early days, but is to-day of relatively slight importance in comparison with railway traffic. Population. — The population of California increased in successive decades from 1850 to 1900 respectively by 310-3, 47-3, 54-3, 40-3, and 22-4%. (Great as was this growth it did not equal that of some states in the Middle West, as for example Iowa). The population in 1900 was 1,485,053, or 9-5 per sq. m. There were 116 incorporated towns and cities. Of the total population 43-3% was urban, — i.e. resident in cities (n in number) of 8000 or more inhabitants. These n cities were: San Francisco (pop. 342,782), Los Angeles (102,479), Oakland (66,060), Alameda (16,464), Berkeley (13,214), — the last three being suburbs of San Francisco, and the last the seat of the state university, — Sacramento, the state capital (29,282), San Jose (21,500), San Diego (17,700), Stockton (17,506), Fresno (12,470), and Pasadena (9117). Eight other cities had populations of more than 5000 — Riverside City (7973), Vallejo (7965), Eureka (7327), Santa Rosa (6673), Santa Barbara (6587), San Ber- nardino (6156), Santa Cruz (5659), and Pomona (5526). Of the entire population in 1900 persons of foreign birth or parentage (one or both parents being foreign) constituted 54-2 and those of native birth were 75-3 %. Of the latter six-tenths were born in California. The foreign element included 45,753 Chinese (a falling off of 25,313 since 1890), and 10,151 Japanese (an increase of 0004 in the same decade). Twenty-two foreign countries contributed more than 1000 residents each, the leading ones being Germany (72,449), China, the United Kingdom (80,222), Canada (29,618; 27,408 being English Canadians), Italy (22,777), Sweden (14,549), France (12,256), Portugal (12,068), Switzerland (10,974), Japan, Denmark, and Mexico, in the order named. Persons of negro descent numbered 1 1,045. Almost all the Indians of the state are taxed as citizens. In 1890 Roman Catholics constituted more than half the total number of church communicants, Methodists a fifth as many; Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists and Episcopalians being the other strongest sects. A peculiar feature in the population statistics of California is the pre- dominance of males, which in 1900 was 156,009; the Asiatic element accounts for a third of this number. Since 1885 the eight counties south of the Tehachapi Range, which are known collectively and specifically as Southern California, have greatly advanced in population. In 1880 their population was 7-3, in 1890 17-2, and in 1900 20-1 % of the total population of the state. The initial impulse to this increase was the beginning of the " fruit epoch " in these counties, combined with a railway " rate-war " following the completion to the coast in 1885 of the Santa Fe, and an extraordinary land boom prevailing from 1886 to 1888. The conjuncture of circumstances, and the immigration it induced, were unusual even for American con- ditions. The growth of the South, as of the rest of the state, has been continuous and steady since this time. The Indians were prominent in early Californian history, but their progress toward their present insignificance began far back in the Spanish period. It proceeded much more rapidly after the restraining influence of the missions was removed, leaving them free to revert to savagery; and the downward progress of the race was fearfully accelerated during the mining period, when they were abused, depraved, and in large numbers killed. There have been no Indian wars in California's annals, but many butcheries. The natives have declined exceedingly in number since 1830, in 1900 numbering 15,377. They have always been mild-tempered, low, and unintelligent, and are to-day a poor and miserable race. They are all called " Digger Indians " indiscriminately, although divided by a multiplicity of tongues. Government and Institutions. — In the matter of constitution- making California has been conservative, having had only two between 1849 and 1905. The first was framed by a convention at Monterey in 1849, and ratified by the people and proclaimed by the United States military governor in the same year. The present constitution, framed by a convention in 1878-1879, came into full effect in 1880, and was subsequently amended. It was the work of the labour party, passed at a time of high discontent, and goes at great length into the details of government, as was demanded by the state of public opinion. The qualifications required for the suffrage are in no way different from those common throughout the Union, except that by a constitutional amendment of 1894 it is necessary for a voter to be able to read the state constitution and write his name. As compared with the earlier constitution it showed many radical advances toward popular control, the power of the legislature being everywhere curtailed. The power of legislation was taken from it by specific inhibition in thirty-one subjects before within its power; its control of the public domain, its powers in taxation, and its use of the state credit were carefully safe-guarded. " Lobbying " was made a felony; provisions were inserted against lotteries and stock-exchange gambling, to tax and control common carriers and great corporations, and to regulate telegraph, telephone, storage and wharfage charges. The powers of the executive department were also somewhat curtailed. For the judiciary, provisions were made for expediting trials and deci- sions. Notable was the innovation that agreement by three- fourths of a jury should be sufficient in civil cases and that a jury might be waived in minor criminal cases, a provision which of course was based on experience under the Mexican law. All these changes in the organic law reflect bitter experience after 1850; and, read with the history of those years as a commentary, few American constitutions are more instructive. The con- stitution of 1878 corresponds very closely to the ordinary state constitution of to-day. The incorporation of banks issuing circulating notes is forbidden. Marriage is not only declared a civil contract, but the laws expressly recognize that the mere consent of the parties is adequate to constitute a binding marriage. The union of whites with persons of African descent is forbidden. Felons twice convicted may not be pardoned except on the recommendation of a majority of the judges of the supreme court. Judges and state executive officers are elected for terms longer than is usual in the different states (supreme judges 1 2 years, executive officers 4 years) . These few provisions i6 CALIFORNIA are mentioned, not as of particular importance in themselves, but as exceptions of some moment to the usual type of state Constitutions (see UNITED STATES). The Australian ballot was introduced in 1891. In local government there are no deviations from the usual types that demand notice. In the matter of liquor-laws there is local option, and a considerable proportion of the towns and smaller cities, particularly in the south, adopt prohibition. In most of the rest high licence is more or less strictly enforced. The total assessed valuation of property grew from $666,399,985 in 1880 to $1,217,648,683 in 1900 and $1,879,728,763 in 1907. In 1904, when the U.S. Census Report showed California to be the twenty-first state of the Union in population but the sixth in wealth, the total estimated true value of all property was $4,115,491,106, of which $2,664,472,025 was the value of real property and improvements thereon. The per capita wealth of the state was then reported as $2582.32, being exceeded only by the three sparsely settled states of Montana, Wyoming and Nevada. In 1898 California had the largest savings-bank deposit per depositor ($637.75) °f anv state in the Union; the per caput deposit was $110 in 1902, and about one person in seven was a depositor. The state bonded debt in 1907 amounted to three and a half million dollars, of which all but $767,529.03 was represented by bonds purchased by the state and held for the school and university funds; for the common school fund on the ist of July 1907 there were held bonds for $4,890,950, and $800,000 in cash available for investment; for the university fund there were held $751,000 in state bonds, and a large amount in other securities. The total bonded county indebtedness was $4,879,600 in 1906 (not including that of San Francisco, a consolidated city and county, which was $4,568,600). A homestead, entered upon record and limited to a value of $5000 if held by the head of a family and to a value of $1000 if held by one not the head of a family, is exempt from liability for debts,except for a mortgage ; a lien before it was claimed asa home- stead is a lien afterward for improvements. A homestead held by a married man cannot be mortgaged without consent of his wife. Under an act approved on the 25th of» March 1903 a state board of charities and corrections, — consisting of six members, not more than three being of the same political party, appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the senate, and holding office for twelve years, two retiring at the end of each quadrennium, — investigates, examines, and makes " reports upon the charitable, correctional and penal institutions of the state," excepting the Veterans' Home at Yountville, Napa county, and the Woman's Relief Corps Home at Evergreen, Santa Clara county. There are state prisons with convicts working under the public account system, at San Quentin, Maria county, and Folsom, Sacramento county. The Preston (Sonoma county) School of Industry, for older boys, and the Whittier (Los Angeles county) State School, for girls and for boys under sixteen, are the state reformatories, each having good industrial and manual training departments. There are state hospitals for the insane at Agnew, Santa Clara county; at Stockton, San Joaquin county; at Napa, Napa county; at Pat ton, San Bernardino county; and, with a colony of tuber- cular patients, at Ukiah, Mendocino county. In 1906 the ratio of insane confined to institutions, to the total population, was i to every 270. Also under state control are the home for care and training of feeble-minded children, at Eldridge, Sonoma county; the institution for the deaf and the blind at Berkeley, and the home of mechanical trades for the adult blind at Oakland. A Juvenile Court Law was enacted in 1903 and modified in 1905. The educational system of California is one of the best in the country. The state board of education is composed of the governor of the state, who is its president; the superintendent of public instruction, who is its secretary; the presidents of the five normal schools and of the University of California, and the professor of pedagogy in the university. Sessions are long in primary schools, and attendance was made compulsory in 1874 (and must not be less than two-thirds of all school days) . The state controlled the actual preparation and sale of text-books for the common schools from 1885 to 1903, when the Perry amendment to the constitution (ratified by popular vote in 1884) was declared to mean that such text-books must be manufactured within the state, but that the texts need not be prepared in California. The experiment of state-prepared text-books was expensive, and its effect was bad on the public school system, as such text-books were almost without exception poorly written and poorly printed. After 1903 copyrights were leased by the state. Secondary schools are closely affiliated with, and closely inspected by, the state university. All schools are generously supported, salaries are unusually good, and pension funds in all cities are authorized by state laws. The value of school property in 1900 was $19,135,722, and the expenditure for the public schools $6,195,000; in 1906 the value of school property was $29,013,150, and the expenditure for public schools $10,815,857. The average school attendance for all minors of school age (5-20 years) was 59-9%; of those native-born 61-5, of those foreign-bom 34-6; of coloured children, including Asiatics and Indians, 35-8, and of white, 60-8%. In 1900,6-2% of the males of voting age, and 2-4% of the native-born males of voting age, were illiterate (could not write). Some 3% of the total population could not speak English; Chinese and Japanese constituting almost half of the number, foreign-born whites somewhat less, and Indians and native-born whites of foreign parentage together less than a tenth of the total. Of the higher educational institutions of the state the most important are the state university at Berkeley and Leland Stanford Jr. University at Palo Alto. The former is supported with very great liberality by the state; and the latter, the endowment of which is private (the state, however, exempting it from taxation), is one of the richest educational institutions of America. In 1906 there were also five state normal schools (at Chico, Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, and San Jose), and a considerable number of denominational colleges. There is also a state polytechnic school at San Luis Obispo (1903). History. — The name " California " was taken from Ordonez de Montalvo's romance of chivalry Las Sergas de Esplandian (Madrid, 1 510), in which is told of black Amazons ruling an island of this name " to the right of the Indies, very near the quarter of the terrestrial paradise." The name was given to the unknown north-west before 1 540. It does not show that the namers were prophets or wise judges, for the Spaniards really knew California not at all for more than two centuries, and then only as a genial but rather barren land; but it shows that the conquistadores mixed poetry with business and illustrates the glamour thrown about the " Northern Mystery." Necessarily the name had for a long time no definite geographical meaning. The lower Colorado river was discovered in 1 540, but the explorers did not penetrate California; in 1542-1543 Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo explored at least the southern coast; in 1579 Sir Francis Drake repaired his ships in some Californian port (almost certainly not San Francisco Bay), and named the land New Albion; two Philippine ships visited the coast in 1584 and 1595, and in 1602 and 1603 Sebastian Vizcaino discovered the sites of San Diego and Monterey. There was apparently no increase of knowledge thereafter for 150 years. Most of this time California was generally supposed to be an island or a group of islands. Jesuit missionaries entered Lower California as early as 1697, maintain- ing themselves there until Charles III. 's expulsion in 1767 of all Jesuits from his dominions; but not until Russian explorations in Alaska from 1745-1765 did the Spanish, government show interest in Upper California. Because of these explorations, and also the long-felt need of a refitting point on the' California coast for the galleons from Manila, San Diego was occupied in 1769 and Monterey in 1770 as a result of urgent orders from Charles III. San Francisco Bay was discovered in the former year. Mean- while the Jesuit property in the Peninsula had been turned over to Franciscan monks, but in 1772 the Dominicans took over the missions, and the Franciscans not unwillingly withdrew to Upper California, where they were to thrive remarkably for some fifty years. This is the mission period — or from an economic standpoint, CALIFORNIA the pastoral period — of California!) history. In all, twenty-one missions were established between 1769 and 1823. The leader in this movement was a really remarkable man, Miguel Jos* Serra (known as Junipcro Serra, 1713- 1784), a friar of very great ability, purest piety, and tireless Mai. He possessed great intlucnce in Mexico and Madrid. " The theory of the mission system," says H. H. Bancroft, " was to make the savages work out their own salvation and that of the priests also." The last phrase scarcely does justice to the truly humane and devout intentions of the missionaries; but in truth the mission system was a complete failure save in the accumulation of material wealth. Economically the missions were the blood and life of the province. At them the neophytes worked up wool, tanned hides, prepared tallow, cultivated hemp and wheat, raised a few oranges, made soap, some iron and leather articles, mission furniture, and a very lit lie wine and olive oil. Such as it was, this was about the only manufacturing or handicraft in California. Besides, the hides and tallow yielded by the great herds of cattle at the missions were the support of foreign trade and did much toward paying the expenses of the government. The Franciscans had no sympathy for profane knowledge, even among the Mexicans, — sometimes publicly burning .quantities of books of a scientific or miscellaneous nature; and the reading of Fenelon's Ttltmaque brought ex- communications on a layman. As for the intellectual develop- ment of the neophytes the mission system accomplished nothing; save the care of their souls they received no instruction, they were virtually slaves, and were trained into a fatal dependence, so that once coercion was removed they relapsed at once into barbarism. It cannot be said, however, that Anglo-Americans have done much better for them. The political upheavals in Spain and Mexico following 1808 made little stir in this far-off province. Joseph was never recognized, and allegiance was sworn to Ferdinand (1809). When revolution broke out in Mexico (1811), California remained loyal, suffering much by the cessation of supplies from Mexico, the resulting deficits falling as an added burden upon the missions. The occupation of Monterey for a few hours by a Buenos Aires privateer (1818) was the only incident of actual war that Cali- fornia saw in all these years; and it, in truth, was a ridiculous episode, fit introduction to the bloodless play-wars, soon to be inaugurated in Californian politics. In 1820 the Spanish con- stitution was duly sworn to in California, and in 1822 allegiance was given to Mexico. Under the Mexican Federal constitution of 1824 Upper California, first alone (it was made a distinct province in 1804) and then with Lower California, received representation in the Mexican congress. The following years before American occupation may be divided into two periods of quite distinct interest. From about 1840 to 1848 foreign relations are the centre of interest. From 1824 to 1840 there is a complicated and not uninteresting movement of local politics and a preparation for the future, — the missions fall, republicanism grows, the sentiment of local patriotism becomes a political force, there is a succession of sectional controversies and personal struggles among provincial chiefs, an increase of foreign commerce, of foreign immigration and of foreign influence. The Franciscans were mostly Spaniards in blood and in sympathies. They viewed with displeasure and foreboding the fall of Iturbide's empire and the creation of the republic. They were not treasonable, but talked much, refusing allegiance to the new government; and as they controlled the resources of the colony and the good will of the Indians, they felt their strength against the local authority; besides, they were its constant benefactors. But secularization was in harmony with the growth of republican ideas. There was talk in California of the rights of man and neophytes, and of the sins of friars. The missions were never intended to be permanent. The mission- aries were only the field workers sent out to convert and civilize the Indians, who were to be turned over then to the regular clergy, the monks pushing further onward into new fields. This was the well-established policy of Spain. In 1813 the Spanish Cortes ordered the secularization of all missions in America that were ten years old, but this decree was not published in California until 1821. After that secularization was the burning question in Californian politics. In 1826 a beginning toward it was made in partially emancipating the neophytes, but active and thorough secularization of the missions did not begin until 1834; by 1835 it was consummated at sixteen missions out of twenty-one, and by 1840 at all. At some of the missions the monks acted later as temporary curates for the civil authorities, until in 1845-1846 all the missions were sold by the government. Unfortunately the manner of carrying it out discredited a policy neither unjust nor bad in itself, increasing its importance in the political struggles of the time. The friars were in no way mistreated: Califomians did not share Mexican resentments against Spaniards, and the national laws directed against these were in the main quietly ignored in the province. In 1831 the mission question led to a rising against the reactionary clerical rule of Governor Manuel Victoria. He was driven out of the province. This was the first of the opera bouffe wars. The causes underlying them were serious enough. In the first place, there was a growing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule, which accom- plished nothing tangible for good in California, — although its plans were as excellent as could be asked had there only been peace and means to realize them; however, it made the mistake of sending convicts as soldiers. Califomians were enthusiastic republicans, but found the benefits of republicanism slow in coming. The resentment of the Franciscans, the presence of these and other reactionaries and of Spaniards, the attitude of foreign residents, and the ambitions of leading Californian families united to foment and propagate discontent. The feeling against Mexicans — those " de la otra banda " as they were significantly termed — invaded political and even social life. In the second place, there was growing jealousy between northern towns and southern towns, northern families and southern families. These entered into disputes over the location of the capital and the custom-house, in the Franciscan question also (because the friars came some from a northern and some from a southern college), and in the question of the distribution of commands in the army and offices in the civil government. Then there was the mission question; this became acuter about 1833 when the friars began to destroy, or sell and realize on, the mission property. The next decade was one of plunder and ruin in mission history. Finally there was a real growth of republic- anism, and some rulers — notably Victoria — were wholly out of sympathy with anything but personal, military rule. From all these causes sprang much unrest and considerable agitation. In 1828-1829 there was a revolution of unpaid soldiers aided by natives, against alleged but not serious abuses, that really aimed at the establishment of an independent native government. In 1831 Governor Victoria was deposed; in 1835 Governor Mariano Chico was frightened out of the province; in 1836 Governor Nicolas Gutierrez and in 1844-1845 Governor Manuel Micheltorena were driven out of office. The leading natives headed this last rising. There was talk of independence, but sectional and personal jealousies could not be over- come. In all these wars there was not enough blood shed to discolour a sword. The rising of 1836 against Gutierrez seems to-day most interesting, for it was in part a protest against the growth of federalism in Mexico. California was even deferred to as (declared to be seems much too strong a statement) an Estado Libre y Soberano; and from 1836 to 1838, when the revolutionary governor, Juan B. Alvarado, was recognized by the Mexican government, which had again inclined to federalism and, besides, did not take the matter very seriously, the local government rested simply on local sentiment. The satisfaction of this ended all difficulties. By this time foreign influence was showing itself of importance. Foreign commerce, which of course was contraband, being contrary to all Spanish laws, was active by the begin- ning of the loth century. It was greatly stimulated during the Spanish-American revolutions (the Lima tioa. and Panama trade dating from about 1813), for, as the Californian authorities practically ignored the law, smuggling i8 CALIFORNIA was unnecessary; this was, indeed, much greater after 1822 under the high duties (in 1836-1840 generally about 100%) of the Mexican tariffs. In the early 'forties some three-fourths of the imports, even at Monterey itself, are said to have paid no duties, being landed by agreement with the officials. Wholesale and retail trade flourished all along the coast in defiance of pro- hibitory laws. American trade was by far most important. The Boston traders — whose direct trade began in 1882, but the in- direct ventures long before that — were men of decided influence in California. The trade supplied almost all the clothing, merchandise and manufactures used in the province ; hides and furs were given in exchange. If foreign trade was not to be received, still less were foreign travellers, under the Spanish laws. However, the Russians came in 1805, and in 1812 founded on Bodega Bay a post they held till 1841, whence they traded and hunted (even in San Francisco Bay) for furs. From the day of the earliest foreign commerce sailors and traders of divers nationalities began to settle in the province. In 1826 American hunters first crossed to the coast; in 1830 the Hudson's Bay Company began operations in northern California. By this time the foreign element was considerable in number, and it doubled in the next six years, although the true overland immigration from the United States began only about 1840. Asa class foreigners were respected, and they were influential beyond proportion to their numbers. They controlled commerce, and were more energetic, generally, than were the natives; many were natural- ized, held generous grants of land, and had married into Cali- fornian families, not excluding the most select and influential. Most prominent of Americans in the interior was John A. Sutter (1803-1880), who held a grant of eleven square leagues around the present site of Sacramento, whereon he built a fort. His position as a Mexican official, and the location of his fortified post on the border, commanding the interior country and lying on the route of the overland immigrants, made him of great im- portance in the years preceding and immediately following American occupation ; although he was a man of slight abilities and wasted his great opportunities. Other settlers in the coast towns were also of high standing and importance. In short, Americans were hospitably received and very well treated by the government and the people; despite some formalities and ostensible surveillance there was no oppression whatever. There was, however, some jealousy of the 'ease with which Americans secured land grants, and an entirely just dislike of " bad " Americans. The sources from which all the immigrants were recruited made inevitable an element of lawlessness and truculence. The Americans happened to predominate. Along with a full share of border individuality and restlessness they had the usual boisterous boastfulness and a racial contempt, which was arrogantly proclaimed, for Mexicans, — often too for Mexican legal formalities. The early comers were a conservative American force in politics, but many of the later comers wanted and Euro- to make California a second Texas. As early as 1805 pean in- ^ tne tjme o£ james Monroe's negotiations for Florida), there are traces of Spain's fear of American ambitions even in this far-away province. It was a fear she felt for all her American possessions. Spain's fears passed on to Mexico, the Russians being feared only less than Americans. An offer was made by President Jackson in 1835 to buy the northern part of California, including San Francisco Bay, but was refused. In 1836 and 1844 Americans were prominent in the incidents of revolution; divided in opinion in both years they were neutral in the actual " hostilities " of the latter, but some gave active support to the governor in 1836. From 1836 on, foreign inter- ference was much talked about. Americans supposed that Great Britain wished to exchange Mexican bonds for California; France also was thought to be watching for an opening for gratifying supposed ambitions; and all parties saw that even without overt act by the United States the progress of American settlement seemed likely to gain them the province, whose connexion with Mexico had long been a notoriously loose one. A considerable literature written by travellers of all the countries named had before this discussed all interests. In 1840 for too active interest in politics some Americans and Englishmen were temporarily expelled. In 1842 Commodore T. A. C. Jones (1780-1858) of the United States navy, believing that war had broken out between his country and Mexico and that a British force was about to seize California, raised the American flag over Monterey (October 2 ist), but finding that he had acted on misinformation he lowered the flag next day with due ceremony and warm apology. In Cali- fornia this incident served only to open up agreeable personal relations and social courtesies, but it did not tend to clarify the diplomatic atmosphere. It showed the ease of seizing the country, the indifference of the natives, and the resolution of the United States government. Mexico sought to prevent American immigration, but the local authorities would not enforce such orders, however positive. Between 1843 and 1845, Great Britain, the United States, and France opened consulates. By 1845 there was certainly an agreement in opinion among all American residents (then not 700 in number) as regards the future of the country. The policy of France and Great Britain in these years is unknown. That of the United States is fully known. In 1845 the American consul at Monterey, Thomas O. Larkin (1802-1 858), was instructed to work for the secession of California from Mexico, without overt aid from the United States, but with their good-will and sympathy. He very soon gained from leading officers assurances of such a movement before 1848. At the same time American naval officers were instructed to occupy the ports in case of war with Mexico, but first and last to work for the good-will of the natives. In 1845 Captain J. C. Fremont, — whose doings in California in the next two years were to be the main assets in a life-long reputation and an unsuccessful presi- dential campaign, — while engaged in a government surveying expedition, aroused the apprehensions of the Californian authorities by suspicious and very possibly intentionally provocative movements, and there was a show of military force by both parties. Fremont had information beyond that of ordinary men that made him believe early hostilities between the United States and Mexico to be inevitable ; he was also officially informed of Larkin's secret task and in no way authorized to hamper it. Resentment, however, incited him to personal revenge on the Californian government, and an ambition that clearly saw the gravity of the crisis prompted him to improve it unscrupulously for his own advancement, leaving his government to support or disavow him according as piag_» war should come or not. In violation therefore of international amities, and practically in disobedience of orders, he broke the peace, caused a band of Mexican cavalry mounts to be seized, and prompted some American settlers to occupy Sonoma (i4th June 1846). This episode is known as the " Bear Flag War," inasmuch as there was short-lived talk of making California an independent state, and a flag with a bear as an emblem (California is still popularly known as the Bear Flag State)flew for a few days at Sonoma. It was a very small, very disingenuous, inevitably an anomalous, and in the vanity of proclamations and other concomitant incidents rather a ridiculous affair; and fortunately for the dignity of history — and for Fremont — it was quickly merged in a larger question, when Commodore John Drake Sloat (1780-1867) on the 7th of July raised the flag of the United States over Monterey, proclaiming California a part of the United States. The opening hostilities of the Mexican War had occurred on the Rio Grande. The excuses and explanations later given by Fremont— military preparations by the Californian authorities, the imminence of their attack, ripening British schemes for the seizure of the province, etc. — made up the stock account of historians until the whole truth came out in 1886 (inRoyce's California). Californians had been very friendly to Americans, but Larkin's intimates thought they had been tricked, and the people resented the stealthy and unprovoked breaking of peace, and unfortunately the Americans did riot known how to treat them except inconsiderately and somewhat contemptuously. The result was a feeble rising in the south. The country was fully pacified by January 1847. The aftermath of Fremont's filibustering acts, followed as they were CALIFORNIA by wholly needless hostilities and by some injustice then and later in the attitude of Americans toward the natives, was a growing misunderstanding, and estrangement regrettable in Californian history. Thus there was an end to the " lotos-land society " of California. Another society, less hospitable, less happy, less contented, but also less mild, better tempered for building states, and more "progressive," took the place of Ike old. By the treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo in 1848 Mexico ceded California to the United States. It was just at this time that 8°ld was discovered, and the new territory took on great national importance. The discussion as to what the « urtrrf s],ou|d be done with it began in Congress in 1846, Stmut- immediately involving the question of sla.vcry. A furious conflict developed, so that nothing was accomplished in two successive sessions; even at the end of a third, in March 1849, the only progress made toward creating a government for the territory was that the national revenue laws had been extended over it and San Francisco had been made a port of entry. Meanwhile conditions grew intolerable for the inhabit- ants. Before the end of the war Mexican laws not incompatible with United States laws were by international law supposed to be in force; but nobody knew what they were, and the uncer- tainties of vague and variable alcalde jurisdictions were increased when Americans began to be alcaldes and grafted English common-law principles, like the jury, on Californian practices. Never was a population more in need of clear laws than the motley Californian people of 1848-1849, yet they had none when, with peace, military rule and Mexican law technically ended. There was a curious extra-legal fusion of laws, a half-breed legal system, and no definite basis for either law or government. Even the acts and theories of the officials were very inconsistent. Early in 1849 temporary local governments were set up in various towns, and in September a convention framed a free- state constitution and applied for admission to the Union. On the 7th of September 1850 a bill finally passed Congress admit- ting California as a free state. This was one of the bargains in the " Compromise Measures of 1850 " that were intended to dispose of tie question of slavery in the Territories. Meanwhile the gold discoveries culminated and surpassed " three centuries of wild talk about gold in California." For three months there was little excitement, then a wild rush. Settlements were completely deserted; homes, farms and stores abandoned. Ships deserted by their sailors crowded the bay at San Francisco — there were 300 of them in July 1850; soldiers deserted whole- sale, churches were emptied, town councils ceased to sit, merchants, clerks, lawyers and judges and criminals, everybody, flocked to the foothills. Soon, from Hawaii, Oregon and Sonora, from the Eastern states, the South Seas, Australia, South America and China came an extraordinary flow of the hopeful and adventurous. In thewinterof '48 the rush began from the states to Panama, and in the spring across the plains. It is estimated that 80,000 men reached the coast in 1849, about half of them coming overland; three-fourths were Americans. Rapid settlement, excessive prices, reckless waste of money, and wild commercial ventures that glutted San Francisco with all objects usable and unusable made the following years astounding from an economic point of view; but not less bizarre was the social development, nor less extraordinary the problems of state-building in a society " morally and socially tried as no other American community ever has been tried " (Royce). There was of course no home life in early California. In 1850 women numbered 8% of the population, but only 2% in the mining counties. The miners were an energetic, covetous, wandering, abnormally excitable body of men. Occasionally a kind of frenzy even would seem to seize on them, and lured by the hope of new deposits of unheard-of richness thousands would flock on unfounded rumours to new and perhaps distant localities, where many might perish from disease and starvation, the rest returning in poverty and rags. Such were the Kern River fever of 1855 and the greater " Fraser River rush " of 1858, the latter, which took perhaps 20,000 men out of the state, Tin null for told. causing a terrible amount of suffering. Many interior towns lost half their population and some virtually all their population as a result of this emigration; and it precipitated a real estate crash in San Francisco that threatened temporary ruin. Mining times in California brought out some of the most ignoble and some of the best traits of American character. Professor Josiah Royce has pictured the social-moral process by which society finally impressed its "claims on wayward and blind individuals" who " sought wealth and not a social order," and so long as possible shirked all social obligations. Through varied instru- ments— lynch law, popular courts, vigilance committees — order was, however, enforced, better as times went on, until there was a stable condition of things. In the economic life and social character of California to-day the legacies of 1848 are plain. The slavery question was not settled for California in 1850. Until the Civil War the division between the Whig and Demo- cratic parties, whose organization in California preceded state- hood, was essentially based on slavery. The struggle fused with the personal contests of two men, rivals for the United States Senate, William McKendree Gwin (1805-1885, United States senator, 1850-1861), the leader of the pro-slavery party, and David Colbreth Brodcrick (1810-1859), formerly a leader of Tammany in New York, and after 1857 a member from California of the United States Senate, the champion of free labour, who declared in 1860 for the policy of the Republican party. Broderick's undoing was resolved upon by the slavery party, and he was killed in a duel. The Gwin party hoped to divide California into two states and hand the southern over to slavery; on the eve of the Civil War it considered the scheme of a Pacific coast republic. The decade 1850-1860 was also marked by the activity of filibusters against Sonora and Central America. Two of these — one a French adventurer, Gaston Raoux, comte de Raousset-Boulbon (1817-1854), and William Walker, had very picturesque careers. The state was thoroughly loyal when war came. The later 'fifties are characterized by H.H.Bancroft as a period of " moral, political and financial night." National politics were put first, to the complete ignoring of excessive taxation, financial extravagance, ignorant legislation and corruption in California. The public was exploited for many years with impunity for the benefit of private interests. One legacy that ought to be briefly noted here is that of disputed land grants. Under the Mexican regime such grants were generous and common, and the complicated grant*. formalities theoretically essential to their validity were very often, if not usually, only in part attended to. Titles thus gained would never have been questioned under continued Mexican government, but Americans were unaccustomed to such riches in land and to such laxity. From the very first hundreds " squatted " on large claims, contesting the title. Instead of confirming all claims existing when the country passed to the United States, and so ensuring an immediate settlement of the matter, which was really the most important thing for the peace and purse of the community, the United States government undertook through a land commission and courts to sift the valid from the fraudulent. Claims of enormous aggregate value were thus considered and a large part of those dating from the last years of Mexican dominion (many probably artfully con- cocted and fraudulently antedated after the commission was at work) were finally rejected. This litigation filled the state and federal courts for many years. The high value of realty in San Francisco naturally offered extraordinary inducements to fraud, and the largest part of the city was for years involved in fraudulent claims, and its peace broken by " squatter "-troubles. Twenty or thirty years of the state's life were disturbed by these controversies. Land- monopoly is an evil of large proportions in California to-day, but it is due to the laxness of the United States government in enabling speculators to accumulate holdings and not to the original extent of Mexican grants. In state gubernatorial elections after the Civil War the Democrats won in 1867, 1875,1882, 1886, 1894; the Republicans in 1871, 1879, 1890, 1898, 1902. The leading features of political life and of legislation after 1876 were a strong labour agitation, 20 CALIFORNIA the struggle for the exclusion of the Chinese, for the control of hydraulic mining, irrigation, and the advancement by state-aid of the fruit interests; the last three of which have already been referred to above. Labour conditions were peculiar in the period following 1870. Mining, war times and the building of the Central Pacific had up to then inflated prices and prosperity. Then there came a slump; probably the truth was rather that money was becoming less unnaturally abundant than that there was any over-supply of labour. The turning off of some 15,000 Chinese (principally in 1869-1870) from the Central Pacific lines who flocked to San Francisco, augmented the discontent of incompetents, of disappointed late immigrants, and the reaction from flush times. Labour unions became strong and demon- strative. In 1877-1878 Denis Kearney (1847-1907), an Irish drayman and demagogue of considerable force and daring, headed the discontented. This is called the " sand-lots agita- tion " from the favourite meeting-place (in San Francisco) of the agitators. The outcome of these years was the Constitution of 1879, already described, and the exclusion of Chinese by national law. In 1879 California voted against further immigration of Chinese by 154,638 to 883. Congress re-enacted exclusion legislation in 1902. All authorities agree that the Chinese in early years were often abused in the mining country and their rights most un- justly neglected by the law and its officers. Men among the most respected in California (Joaquin Miller, H. H. Bancroft and others) have said most in praise and defence of the Chinaman. From railroad making to cooking he has proved his abilities and trustworthiness. He is found to-day in the mines and fisheries, in various lines of manufacture, in small farming, and in all branches of domestic service. The question of the economic development of the state, and of trade to the Orient, the views of the mercenary labour-contractor and of the philanthropist, the factor of " upper-race " repugnance, the " economic-leech" argument, the " rat-rice-filth-and-opium " argument, have all entered into the problem. Certain it is that though the unpre- judiced must admit that exclusion has not been at all an unmixed blessing, yet the consensus of opinion is that a large population, non-citizen and non-assimilable, sending — it is said — most of •their earnings to China, living in the main meanly at best, and practically without wives, children or homes, is socially and economically a menace outweighing the undoubted convenience of cheaper (and frequently more trustworthy) menial labour than the other population affords. The exclusion had much to do with making the huge single crop ranches unprofitable and in leading to their replacement by small farms and varied crops. Many of the Chinese now in the state are wealthy. Race feeling against them has become much less marked. One outcome of early mission history, the " Pious Fund of the Californias," claimed in 1902 the attention of the Hague Tribunal. (See ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL, Hague cases section.) In 1906-1907 there was throughout the state a re- markable anti-Japanese agitation, centring in San Francisco (q.v.) and affecting international relations and national politics. GOVERNORS OF CALIFORNIA (State) * I. SPANISH Sasper de Portola served 1767-1770 7ilipe de Barri I77I-I774 7elipe de Neve . , 1774-1782 3edro Pages 1782-1791 ose Antonio Romeu 1791-1792 ose Joaquin de Arillaga 1792-1794 )iego de Borica . 1794-1800 ose Joaquin de Arillaga 1800-1804 ose Joaquin de Arillaga 1804-1814 ose Diario Arguello 'ablo Vicente de Sola . 1814-1815 1815-1822 1 As months and even years often elapsed between the date when early governors were appointed and the beginning of their actual service, the date of commission is disregarded, and the date of service given. Sometimes this is to be regarded as beginning at Monterey, sometimes elsewhere in California, sometimes at Loreto in Lower California, All the Spanish and Mexican governors were appointed by the national government, except in the case of the II. MEXICAN Pablo Vicente de Sola . *Luis Antonio Arguello Jose Maria Echeandia Manuel Victoria Jose Maria Echeandia 2 PioPico3 . Jose Figueroa *Jose Castro . *Nicolas Gutierrez Mariano Chico Nicolas Gutierrez Juan Bautista Alvarado4 Carlos Antonio Carrillo 6 Manuel Micheltorena . Pio Pico served 1822 1822-1825 1825-1831 1831 1831-1832 1832 1832-1835 1835-1836 1836 1836 1836 1836-1842 1837-1838 1842-1845 1845-1846 III. AMERICAN (a) Military. John D. Sloat Richard F. Stockton Stephen W. Kearney R. B. Mason Bennett Riley (b) State. 1849-1851 1851-1852 1852-1856 1856-1858 1858-1860 1860 (6 days) 1860-1862 1862-1863 1863-1867 1867-1871 1871-1875 1875 1875-1880 1880-1883 1883-1887 1887 1887-1891 1891-1895 1895-1899 1899-1903 1903-1907 1907 The mark * before the name of one of the Spanish governors indicates that he acted only ad interim, and, in the case of governors since 1849, that the officer named was elected as lieutenant-governor and succeeded to the office of governor. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For list of works on California, see University of California Library Bulletin, No. 9, 1887, " List of Printed Maps of California"; catalogue of state official publications by State Library (Sacramento, 1894). The following may be cited here on different aspects : — TOPOGRAPHY. — J. Muir, Mountains of California (New York, 1894) ; H. Gannet, " Dictionary of Elevations " (1898), and " River Profiles," publications of United States Geological Survey; G. W. James, The Wonders of the Colorado Desert (2 vols., Boston, 1906). CLIMATE. — United States Department of Agriculture, California Climate and Crop Service, monthly reports; E. S. Holden, Recorded Earthquakes in California, Lower California, Oregon, and Washington Territory (California State University, 1887); United States Depart- ment Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Bulletins, No. I, 1892, M. H. Harrington, " Climate and Meterorology of Death Valley." There is a great mass of general descriptive literature, especially on South- ern California, such as Charles Dudley Warner, Our Italy (New York, 1891); Kate Sanborn, A Truthful Woman in Southern California (New York, 1893); W. Lindley and J. P. Widney, California of the South (New YorkLl896); J. W. Hanson, American Italy (Chicago, Peter H. Burnett . *John H. McDougall John Bigler John M. Johnson . John B. Weller . Milton S. Latham "John G. Downey . Leland Stanford . Frederick G. Law Henry H. Haight . Newton Booth *Romualdo Pacheco William Irwin George G. Perkins George C. Stoneman Washington Bartlett *Robert W. Waterman Henry H. Markham James H. Budd Henry T. Gage George C. Pardee James N. Gillett appointed 1846 1846-1847 1847 ,, 1847-1849 1849 Democrat Know Nothing Lecompton Democrat Republican Democrat Republican Democrat Republican Democrat Republican Democrat Republican 1896) ; T. S. Van Dyke, Southern California (New York, 1886), &c. FAUNA, FLORA. — Muir, op. cit. ; United States Geological Survey, i Oth Annual Report, pt. v., H. Gannet, "Forests of the United States"; idem, 2oth Annual Report, pt. v., " United States Forest Reserves " ; United States Division of Forestry, Bulletin No. 28, " A Short Account of the Big Trees of California " (1900), No. 38, " The Redwood " (a volume, 1903), also Professional Papers, e.g. No. 8, J. B. Leiberg, " Forest Conditions in the Northern Sierra Nevada " (1902) ; California Board of Forestry, Reports (1885 — ) ; semi-revolutionary rulers of 1831-1832 and 1836 (Alvarado), whose title rested on revolution, or on local choice under a national statute regarding gubernatorial vacancies. 1 Acting political chief, revolutionary title. 8 Briefly recognized in South. * Revolutionary title, 1836-1838. 6 Appointed 1837, never recognized in the North. CALIFORNIA, LOWER 21 I'nited States Censuses, reports on forests; United States Biological Sumv. .Vwrrt American Fauna. No. i<>, i!v><). ('. II. Mcrriani, " Hi.ijo^i, .il >ur\c\ of Mi. Sh.i-.ta"; I'nited Slates Department Agriculture. Contributions from United States National Herbarium, iv.. 1893, F. V. C'olvillf, fi Botany of Death Valley Expedition"; Statt Board of Fish Commissioners. Reports, from l8«7; United States Fiik Commissioners, Annual Reports, from 1871, and Bulletins from 1882; J. le Conte, " Flora of the CIM-I Islands " (1887), being Bulletin No. 8 of California Academy of Sciences; consult also its Proceedings. Memoirs, and Occasional Papers; (.',. J. Peirce, Studies on tkt Coast Redwood (publication of Leland Stanford jr. University, 1901). Kicri.Ti'RE. — California Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins from 1884; Reports of Ike State Dairy Bureau, from 1898; Stale Board of Horticulture, Reports, 1889-1894; United States Censuses, 1890 and 1900, reports on irrigation. INDUSTRIES.— J. S. Hittell, Resources of California (7th ed., San Francisco, 1879); J. S. Hittell, Commerce and Industries of the Pacific Coast (San Francisco, 1882); T. F. Cronise. Natural Wealth of California (San Francisco, 1868); E. W. Maslin, Resources of California, prepared by order of Governor H. H. Markham (Sacra- mento, 1893); United Stales Treasury, Bureau of Statistics, report by T. J. Vivian on " Commercial. Industrial, Agricultural, Trans- portation and Other Industries of California " (Washington 1890, valuable for whole period before 1890); United States Censuses, 1890 and 1900, reports on agriculture, manufactures, mines and fisheries; California State Board of Trade (San Francisco), Annual Report from 1890. On Mineral Industries:— J. R. Browne, Report on " Mineral Resources of the States and Territories west of the Rocky Mountains" (United States Treasury, 2 vols., Washington, 1867-1868); I'nited States Geological Survey, Annual Reports, Mineral Resources; consult also the bibliographies of publications of the Survey, issued as Bulletins; California State Mining Bureau, Bulletins from 1888, note especially No. 30, 1904, by A. W. Vodges, " Bibliography relating to the Geology, Palaeontology and Mineral Resources of California " (2nd ed., the 1st being Bulletin No. 10, 1896); California Debris Commission, Reports (in Annual Reports Chief of Engineers, United States Army, from 1893). GOVERNMENT. — E. F. Treadwell, The Constitution of the Stale of California . . . Annotated (San Francisco, 1902) ; Johns Hopkins University, Studies in History and Political Science, xiii., R. D. Hunt, " Genesis of California's First Constitution"; Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, xii., R. D. Hunt, " Legal Status of California, 1846-1849 "; Reports of the various officers, departments and administrative boards of the state govern- ment (Sacramento), and also the Appendix to the Journals of the Senate and Assembly, which contains, especially in the earlier decades of the state's history, many of these state official reports along with valuable legislative reports of varied character. HISTORY. — Accounts of the valuable archives in Bancroft, and by Z. E. Eldridge in California Genealogical Society (1901); elaborate bibliographies in Bancroft with analyses and appreciations of many works. Of general scope and fundamental importance is the work of two men, Hubert H. Bapcroft and Theodore H. Hittell. The former has published a History of California, 1542-1890 (j vols., San Francisco, 1884-1890), also California Pastoral, 1769-1848 (San Francisco, 1888), California Inler-Pocula, 1848-1856 (San Francisco, 1888), and Popular Tribunals (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887). These volumes were largely written under Mr. Bancroft's direction and control by an office staff, and are of very unequal value; they are a vast storehouse of detailed material which is of great usefulness, although their judgments of men arc often in- adequate and prejudiced. As regards events the histories are of substantial accuracy and adequacy. Written by one hand and more uniform in treatment and good judgment, is T. H. Hittell's History of California (4 vols., San Francisco, 1885-1897). The older historian of the state was Francisco Palou, a Franciscan, the friend and biographer of Serra; his " Noticias de la Nueva California " (Mexico, 1857, in the Doc. Hist. Mex., ser. iv., torn, vi.-viii.; also San Francisco, 1874, 4 vols.) is no longer of importance save for its historical interest. Of the contemporary material on the period of Mexican domination the best is afforded by R. H. Dana's Two Years Before the Mast (New York, 1840, many later and foreign editions); also A. Robinson, Life in California (New York, 1846); and Alexander Forbes. California: A History of Upper and Lower California from their First Discovery to the Present Time (London, 1839); see also F. W. Blackmar, "Spanish Institutions of the Southwest " (Johns Hopkins University Studies, 1891). A beautiful, vivid and reputedly very accurate picture of the old society is given in Helen Hunt Jackson's novel, Ramona (New York, 1884). There is no really scientific separate account of mission history; there are books by Father Z. Engelhart, The Franciscans in California (HarborSprings. Michigan, 1899), written entirely from a Franciscan standpoint: C. F. Carter. Missions of Nueva California (San Fran- cisco, 1900); Bryan J. Clinch, California and its Missions: Their History to the_ Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (2 vols., San Francisco, 1904); Francisco Palou, Relacion Hislorica de la Vida . . . del Fray Junipero Serra (Mexico, 1787), the standard contemporary source; the Craftsman (Syracuse. N. Y.. vol. v.), a scries of articles on " Mission Buildings," by G. W. James. On the case of the Pious Fund of the missions see J. F. Doyle, History of the Pious Fund (San Francisco, 1887); United States Department of State," United States v. Mexico. Report of J. H. Ralston, agent of the United States and of counsel in the matter of the Pious Fund of the Cali- fornias " (Washington, 1902). On the " flush " mining years the best books of the time are J. Q. Thornton's Oregon and California (a vols., New York, 1849); Edward Bryant's what I Saw in Cali- fornia (New York, 1848) ; W. Shaw's Golden Dreams (London, 1851) ; Bayard Taylor's Eldorado (2 vols., New York, 1850); W. Colton's Three Years in California (New York, 1850); E. G. Buffum's Si'* Months in the Gold Mines; from a Journal of Three Years' Residence in Upper and Lower California (London, 1850); J. T. Brooks' Four Months among the Gold Finders (London, 1849); G. G. Foster, Gold Regions of California (New York, 1884). On this same period consult Bancroft's Popular Tribunals; D. V. Thomas, " A History of Military Government in Newly Acquired Territory of the United States," in vol. xx. No. 2 (New York, 1904) of Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law; C. H. Shinn's Mining Camps: A Study in American Frontier Government (New York, 1885) ; J. Royce, California . . . A Study of American Char- acter, 1846-1856 (Boston, 1886); and, for varied pictures of mining and frontier life, the novels and sketches and poems of Bret Harte. See also P. H. Burnet, Recollections and Opinions of an Old Pioneer (New York, 1880) ; S. J. Field, Personal Reminiscences of Early Days in California (privately published, copyright 1893). CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California), a long narrow peninsula between the Gulf of California and the Pacific Ocean, forming a territory of the republic of Mexico. Pop. (1895), 42,245; (1900) 47,624. Lower California is a southward ex- tension of the State of California, United States, and is touched by only one of the Mexican states, that of Sonora on the E. The peninsula is about 760 m. long and from 30 to 150 m. wide, and has an area of 58,328 sq m. It is traversed throughout its entire length by an irregular range of barren mountains, which slopes toward the Pacific in a succession of low hills, but breaks down abruptly toward the Gulf. The coast has two or three good sheltered bays, that of La Paz on the Gulf side and of Magda- lena on the Pacific side being best known. The coast is bordered by numerous islands, especially on the eastern side. The general appearance of the surface is arid and desolate, partly because of the volcanic remains, and partly because of the scanty rainfall, which is insufficient to support vegetation other than that of the desert except in the deeper mountain valleys. The northern part is hot and dry, like southern California, but the southern part receives more rain and has some fertile tracts, with a mild and pleasant climate. The principal natural product in this region is orchil, or Spanish moss, but by means of irrigation the soil produces a considerable variety of products, including sugar cane, cotton, cassava, cereals, tobacco and grapes. Horses, sheep and cattle are raised in the fertile valleys, but only to a limited extent. The territory is rich in minerals, among which are gold, silver, copper, lead, gypsum, coal and salt. The silver mines near La Paz were worked by the Jesuits as early as 1 700. There are also extensive pearl fisheries in the Gulf, La Paz being the headquarters of the industry, and whale fisheries on the W. coast in the vicinity of Magdalena Bay. The development of mining and other industries in the territory has led to an exten- sion of the California railwayfsystem southwardinto thepeninsula, with the Mexican government's permission, the first section of 37m. from the northern frontier being completed and opened to traffic in 1907. The territory is divided into two districts, the northern having its capital at the insignificant little village of La Ensenada, on Todos Santos Bay, and the southern having its capital at La Paz, at the head of a deep bay opening into the Gulf. La Paz is a port of call for steamships running between Mazatlan and San Francisco, and had a population of 5056 in 1000. La Ensenada (pop. in 1906, about 1500), 65 m. by sea S. of San Diego, Cal., is the only port for the northern part of the territory, and supplies a district extending 250 m. along the coast and 60 m. inland, including the mining camps of the north; it manufactures and exports flour and leather. By orders of Cort6s the coast of Lower California was explored in 1539 by Francisco de Ulloa, but no settlement resulted. It was called California, the name (according to E. E. Hale) being derived from a popular Spanish romance of that time, entitled Sergas de Esplandian, in which an island named California was mentioned and situated " on the right hand of the Indies, very 22 CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF near the terrestrial paradise." The name must have been given derisively, as the barren coasts of Lower California could not have suggested the proximity of a " terrestrial paradise." The exploration of the coast did not extend above the peninsula until 1842. The name California was at first applied exclusively to the peninsula; later, on the supposition that a strait con- nected the Pacific with the head of the Gulf of California, the name Islas Californias was frequently used. This erroneous theory was held as late as 1721. The first settlement was made in 1 597, but was abandoned. From 163310 1683 five unsuccessful attempts were made to establish a settlement at La Paz. Finally the Jesuits succeeded in founding a mission at Loreto on the Gulf course, in about 26° N. lat., in 1697, and at La Paz in 1720. At the time of their expulsion (1767) they had sixteen missions which were either self-supporting or were maintained by funds invested for that special purpose. The settlement of Upper California began in 1769, after which the two provinces were distinguished as California Baja or Antigua, and California Alta, the seat of government remaining in the former for a short time. The two provinces were separated in 1804, were united under one governor residing in California Alta in 1825, and were then re- united in a single department through the political changes of 1836, which lasted no later than 1847. Lower California was only slightly disturbed by the struggle for independence among the Spanish-American colonies, but in 1822 Admiral Lord Cochrane, who was in the service of the Chilean revolutionists, appeared on the coast and plundered San Jose del Cabo, Todos Santos and Loreto. In the war between Mexico and the United States La Paz and other coast towns were occupied by small detachments from California. In 1853 a filibustering expedition against Sonora under William Walker took possession of La Paz and proclaimed a republic consisting of Sonora and the peninsula. Fearing an attack from the mainland, the filibusters first with- drew to La Ensenada, near the American frontier, and then in the following year broke up altogether during an attempt to invade Sonora by land. A revolution under the leadership of Marquez de Leon in 1879 met with some temporary success, but died for want of material support in 1880. The development of mining and other industries since that time, together with vigorous efforts to found colonies in the more favoured localities, have greatly improved the situation in the territory. See the two volumes of H. H. Bancroft's North Mexican States and Texas, lettered vols. 15 and 16 of his Works; also Arthur Walbridge North, The Mother of California (San Francisco, 1908). CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the largest and most important of state universities in America, situated at Berkeley, California, on the E. shore of San Francisco Bay. It took the place of the College of California (founded in 1855), received Cali- fornia's portion of the Federal land grant of 1862, was chartered as a state institution by the legislature in 1868, and opened its doors in 1869 at Oakland. In 1873 it was removed to its present site. In the revised state constitution of 1879 provision is made for it as the head of the state's educational system. The grounds at Berkeley cover 270 acres on the lower slopes (299-900 ft.) of the Berkeley Hills, which rise 1000 ft. or more above the university; the view over the bay to San Francisco and the Golden Gate is superb. In recent years new and better buildings have gradually been provided. In 1896 an international archi- tectural competition was opened at the expense of Mrs Phoebe R. Hearst (made a regent of the university in 1898) for plans for a group of buildings harmonizing with the university's beautiful site, and ignoring all 'buildings already existing. The first prize was awarded in 1899 to Emile Benard, of Paris. The first building begun under the new plans was that for the college of mines (the gift of Mrs Hearst), completed in 1907, providing worthily for the important school of mining, from 1885 directed by Prof. S. B. Christy (b. 1853); California Hall, built by state appropriation, had been completed in 1906. The Greek theatre (1903), an open-air auditorium seating 7500 spectators, on a hill-side in a grove of towering eucalypts, was the gift of William Randolph Hearst; this has been used regularly for concerts by the university's symphony orchestra, under the professor of music, John Frederick Wolle (b. 1863), who originated the Bach Festivals at Bethlehem, Pa.; free public concerts are given on Sunday afternoons; and there have been some remarkable dramatic performances here, notably Sudraka's Mricchakattika in English, and Aeschylus's Eumenides in Greek, in April 1907. There are no dormitories. Student self-government works through the " Undergraduate Students' Affairs Committee " of the Associated Students. The faculty of the university has its own social club, with a handsome building on the grounds. At Berkeley is carried on the work in the colleges of letters, social sciences, natural sciences, commerce, agriculture, mechanical, mining and civil engineering, and chemistry, and the first two years' course of the college of medicine — the Toland Medical College having been absorbed by the university in 1873; at Mount Hamilton, the work of the Lick astronomical department; and in San Francisco, that of dentistry (1888), pharmacy, law, art, and the concluding (post graduate or clinical) years of the medical course — the San Francisco Polyclinic having become a part of the university in 1892. Three of the San Francisco departments occupy a group of three handsome buildings in the western part of the city, overlooking Golden Gate Park. The Lick astronomical depart- ment (Lick Observatory) on Mount Hamilton, near San Jose, occupies a site covering 2777 acres. It was founded in 1875 by James Lick of San Francisco, and was endowed by him with $700,000, $610,000 of this being used for the original buildings and equipments, which were formally transferred to the uni- versity in 1888. The art department (San Francisco Institute of art) was until 1906 housed in the former home of Mark Hopkins, a San Francisco "railroad king"; it dated from 1893, under the name " Mark Hopkins Institute of Art." The building was destroyed in the San Francisco conflagration of 1906; but under its present name the department resumed work in 1907 on the old site. At the university farm, of nearly 750 acres, at Davis- ville, Yolo county, instruction is given in practical agriculture, horticulture, dairying, &c. ; courses in irrigation are given at Berkeley; a laboratory of plant pathology, established in 1907 at Whittier, Riverside county, and an experiment station on 20 acres of land near Riverside, are for the study of plant and tree diseases and pests and of their remedies. A marine biologi- cal laboratory is maintained at La Jolla, near San Diego, and another, the Hertzstein Research Laboratory, at New Monterey; the Rudolph Spreckels Physiological Laboratory is in Berkeley. The university has excellent anthropological and archaeological collections, mostly made by university expeditions, endowed by Mrs Hearst, to Peru and to Egypt. In 1007 the university library contained 160,000 volumes, ranking, after the destruction of most of the San Francisco libraries in 1906, as the largest collection in the vicinity. The building of the Doe library (given by the will of Charles Franklin Doe), for the housing of the university library, was begun in 1907. The university has also the valuable Bancroft collection of 50,000 volumes and countless pamphlets and manuscripts, dealing principally with the history of the Pacific Coast from Alaska through Central America, and of the Rocky Mountain region, including Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico and Western Texas. This collection (that of the historian Hubert Howe Bancroft) was acquired in 1905 for $250,000 (of which Mr Bancroft contributed $100,000), and was entrusted (1907) to the newly organized Academy of Pacific Coast History. The library of Karl Weinhold (1823-1901) of Berlin, which is especially rich in Germanic linguistics and " culture history," was presented to the university in 1903 by John D. Spreckels. The university publishes The University of California Chronicle, an Official Record; and there are important departmental publications, especially those in American archaeology and ethnology, edited by Frederic Ward Putnam (b. 1839), including the reports of various expeditions, maintained by Mrs Hearst; in physi- ology, edited by Jacques Loeb (b. 1859); in botany, edited by William Albert Setchell (b. 1864); in zoology, edited by William Emerson Ritter (b. 1859); and in astronomy, the publications of the Lick Observatory, edited by William Wallace CALIPASH— CALIPHATE Campbell (b. 1862). In 1902, under the direction of Henry -c Stephens (b. 1857), who then became professor of •ry, a department of university extension was organized; lecture courses, especially on history and literature, were de- livi-rod in 1906-1907 at fifteen extension " centres," at most of which classes of study were formed. Annexes to the university, but having no corporate connexion with it, are the Berkeley Bible Seminary (Disciples of Christ), the Pacific Theological Seminary (Congregational), the Pacific Coast Baptist Seminary and a I'niurian school. The growth of the university has been extremely rapid. From iSqo to 1900 the number of students increased fourfold. In the latter year the university of California was second to Harvard only in the number of academic graduate and undergraduate students, and fifth among the educational institutions of the country in total enrolment. In July 1907 there were 519 officers in the faculties and 2987 students, of whom 226 were in the professional schools in San Francisco. In addition there were 707 students in the 1906 summer session, the total for 1006-1907 thus being 3684; of this number 1506 were women. The university conferred 482 degrees in 1907, 546 in 1906, 470 in 1905. The affairs of the university are administered by a board of twenty-three regents, seven state officials and heads of educational institutions, being members ex officio, and sixteen other members being appointed by the governor and senate of the state; its instruction is governed by the faculties of the different colleges, and an academic senate in which these are joined. The gross income from all sources for 1005-1006 was $1,564,190, of which about $800,000 was income from invest- ments, state and government grants, fees, &c., and the remainder was gifts and endowments. There is a permanent endowment of more than $3,000,000, partly from munificent private gifts, especially from Mrs Hearst and from Miss Cora Jean Flood. The financial support of the state has always been generous. No tuition fee is charged in the academic colleges to students resident in the state, and only $10.00 annually to students from without the state. The university maintains about oo under- graduate scholarships, and 10 graduate scholarships and fellow- ships. All able-bodied male students arc required to take the courses in military science, under instruction by an officer of the United States army detailed for the purpose. Physical culture and hygiene are prescribed for all men and women. A state law forbids the sale of liquor within one mile of the university grounds. To realize the ideal of the university as the head of the educational system of the state, a system of inspection of high schools has been developed, whereby schools reaching the pre- scribed standard are entitled to recommend their graduates for admission to the university without examination. It was anticipated at one time that the foundation of the Leland Stanford Junior University at Palo Alto would injure the state institution at Berkeley; but in practice this was not found to be the case; on the contrary, the competition resulted in giving new vigour and enterprise to the older university. Joseph Le Conte (professor from 1872 to 1901) and Daniel C. Oilman (president in 1872-1875) deserve mention among those formerly connected with the university. In 1899 Benjamin Ide Wheeler (b. 1854) became president. He had been a graduate (1875) of Brown University, and was professor first of comparative philology and then of Greek at Cornell University; his chief publications are Der griechische N ominalaccent (1885); Analogy, in its Scope of Application in Language (1887); Principles of Language Growth (1891) ; The Organization of Higher Education in the United States (1897); Dionysos and Immortality (1899); and Life of Alexander the Great (1900). CALIPASH and CALIPEE (possibly connected with carapace, the upper shell of a turtle), the gelatinous substances in the upper and lower shells, respectively, of the turtle, the calipash being of a dull greenish and the calipee of a light yellow colour. CALIPH, CALIF, or KBALIF (Arab, khalifa; the lengthening of the A is strictly incorrect), literally "successor," "repre- sentative," a title borne originally by Abu Bekr, who, on the death of Mahomet, became the civil and religious head of the Muhommcdan state. In the same sense the term is used in the Koran of both Adam and David as the vicegerents of God. Abu Bekr and his three (or four) immediate successors are known as the " perfect " caliphs; after them the title \v;is borne by the thirteen Omayyail caliphs of Damascus, and subsequently by the thirty-seven Abbasid caliphs of Bagdad whose dynasty fell before the Turks in 1258. By some rigid Moslems these rulers were regarded as only amirs, not caliphs. There were titular caliphs of Abbasid descent in Egypt from that date till 1517 when the last caliph was captured by Selim I. On the fall of the Omayyad dynasty at Damascus, the title was assumed by the Spanish branch of the family who ruled in Spain at Cordova (7SS-'°3'), and the Fatimite rulers of Egypt, who pretended to descent from Ali, and Fatima, Mahomet's daughter, also assumed the name (see FATIMITES). According to the Shi'itc Moslems, who call the office the " imamate " or leadership, no caliph is legitimate unless he is a lineal descendant of the Prophet. The Sunnitcs insist that the office belongs to the tribe of Koreish (Quraish) to which Mahomet himself belonged, but this condition would vitiate the claim of the Turkish sultans, who have held the office since its trans- ference by the last caliph to Sclim I. According to a tradition falsely ascribed to Mahomet, there can be but one caliph at a time; should a second be set up, he must be killed, for he " is a rebel." (See MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) CALIPHATE.1 The history of the Mahommedan rulers in the East who bore the title of caliph (q.v.) falls naturally into three main divisions: — (a) The first four caliphs, the immediate successors of Mahomet; (b) The Omayyad caliphs; (c) The Abbasid caliphs. To these three groups the present article is con- fined; for the Western caliphs, see SPAIN: History (and minor articles such as ALMOHADES, ALMORAVIDES) ; for the Egyptian caliphs see EGYPT: History (§ Mahommedan) and FATIMITES. The history of Arabia proper will be found under ARABIA : History. A. — THE FIRST FOUR CALIPHS After the death of Mahomet the question arose who was to be his " representative." The choice lay with the community of Medina; so much was understood; but whom were they to choose? The natives of Medina believed themselves to be now once more masters in their own house, and wished to promote one of themselves. But the Emigrants (see MAHOMET) asserted their opposing claims, and with success, having brought into the town a considerable number of outside Moslems, so as to terrorize the men of Medina, who besides were still divided into two parties. The Emigrants' leading spirit was Omar; he did not, however, cause homage to be paid to himself, but to Abu Bekr, the friend and father-in-law of the Prophet. The affair would not have gone on so smoothly, had not the opportune defection of the Arabians put a stop to the inward schism which threatened. Islam suddenly found itself once more limited to the community of Medina; only Mecca and Taif (TSyef) remained true. The Bedouins were willing enough to pray, indeed, but less willing to pay taxes; their defection, as might have been expected, was a political movement.2 None the less was it a revolt from Islam, for here the political society and the religious are identical. A peculiar compliment to Mahomet was involved in the fact that the leaders of the rebellion in the various districts did not pose as princes and kings, but as prophets; in this appeared to lie the secret of Islam's success. i. Reign of Abu Bekr. — Abu Bekr proved himself quite equal to the perilous situation. In the first place, he allowed the expedition against the Greeks, already arranged by Mahomet, quietly to set out, limiting himself for the time to the defence of Medina. On the return of the army he proceeded to attack 1 Throughout this article, well-known names of persons and places appear in their most familiar forms, generally without accents or other diacritical signs. For the sake of homogeneity the articles on these persons or places are also given under these forms, but in such cases, the exact forms, according to the system of transliteration adopted, are there given in addition. * See Noldeke, Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alien Araber (1864), pp. 89 seq. CALIPHATE the rebels. The holy spirit of Islam kept the men of Medina together, and inspired in them an all-absorbing zeal for the faith; the Arabs as a whole had no other bond of union and no better source of inspiration than individual interest. As was to be expected, they were worsted; eleven small flying columns of the Moslems, sent out in various directions, sufficed to quell the revolt. Those who submitted were forthwith received back into favour; those who persevered in rebellion were punished with death. The majority accordingly converted, the obstinate were extirpated. In Yamama (Yemama) only was there a severe struggle; the Banu Hanlfa under their prophet Mosailima fought bravely, but here also Islam triumphed. The internal consolidation of Islam in Arabia was, strange to say, brought about by its diffusion abroad. The holy war against the border countries which Mahomet had already inaugurated, was the best means for making the new religion popular among the Arabs, for opportunity was at the same time afforded for gaining rich booty. The movement was organized by Islam, but the masses were induced to join it by quite other than religious motives. Nor was this by any means the first occasion on which the Arabian cauldron had overflowed; once and again in former times emigrant swarms of Bedouins had settled on the borders of the wilderness. This had last happened in consequence of the events which destroyed the prosperity of the old Sabaean kingdom. At that time the small Arabian kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira had arisen in the western and eastern borderlands of cultivation; these now presented to Moslem conquest its nearest and natural goal. But inasmuch as Hira was subject to the Persians, and Eastern Palestine to the Greeks, the annexation of the Arabians involved the exten- sion of the war beyond the limits of Arabia to a struggle with the two great powers (see further ARABIA: History). After the subjugation of middle and north-eastern Arabia, Khalid b. al-Walid proceeded by order of the caliph to the conquest of the districts on the lower Euphrates. Thence he was summoned to Syria, where hostilities had also broken out. Damascus fell late in the summer of 635, and on the 2oth of August 636 was fought the great decisive battle on the Hieromax (Yarmuk), which caused the emperor Heraclius (q.v.) finally to abandon Syria.1 Left to themselves, the Christians hence- forward defended themselves only in isolated cases in the fortified cities; for the most part they witnessed the disappearance of the Byzantine power without regret. Meanwhile the war was also carried on against the Persians in Irak, unsuccessfully at first, until the tide turned at the battle of Kadisiya (Kadessia, Qadisiya) (end of 637). In consequence of the defeat which they here sustained; the Persians were forced to abandon the western portion of their empire and limit themselves to Iran proper. The Moslems made themselves masters of Ctesiphon (Madain), the residence of the Sassanids on the Tigris, and conquered in the immediately following years the country of the two rivers. In 639 the armies of Syria and Irak were face to face in Mesopotamia. In a short time they had taken from the Aryans all the principal old Semitic lands — Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Assyria and Babylonia. To these was soon added Egypt, which was overrun with little difficulty by "Amr ibn-el- Ass (q.v.) in 640. (See EGYPT: History, § Mahommedan.) This completed the circle of the lands bordering on the wilderness of Arabia; within these limits annexation was practicable and natural, a repetition indeed of what had often previously oc- curred. The kingdoms of Ghassan and Hira, advanced posts hitherto, now became the headquarters of the Arabs; the new empire had its centres on the one hand at Damascus, on the other hand at Kufa and Basra, the two newly-founded cities in the region of old Babylonia. The capital of Islam continued indeed for a while to be Medina, but soon the Hejaz (Hijaz) and the whole of Arabia proper lay quite on the outskirt of affairs. The ease with which the native populations of the con- quered districts, exclusively or prevailingly Christian, adapted themselves to the new rule is very striking. Their nationality had 1 De Goeje, MSmoires d'hist. et de giog. orient. No. 2 (and ed., Leiden, 1864) ; Noldeke, D.M.Z., 1875, p. 76 sqq.; Baladhuri 137. been broken long ago, but intrinsically it was more closely allied to the Arabian than to the Greek or Persian. Their religious sympathy with the West was seriously impaired by dogmatic controversies; from Islam they might at any rate hope for toleration, even though their views were not in accordance with the theology of the emperor of the day. The lapse of the masses from Christianity to Islam, however, which took place during the first century after the conquest, is to be accounted for only by the fact that in .reality they had no inward relation to the gospel at all. They changed their creed merely to acquire the rights and privileges of Moslem citizens. In no case were they compelled to do so; indeed the Omayyad caliphs saw with displeasure the diminishing proceeds of the poll-tax derived from their Christian subjects (see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). It would have been a great advantage for the solidity of the Arabian empire if it had confined itself within the limits of those old Semitic lands, with perhaps the addition of Egypt. But the Persians were not so ready as the Greeks to give up the contest; they did not rest until the Moslems had subjugated the whole of the Sassanid empire. The most important event in the protracted war which led to the conquest of Iran, was the battle of Nehawend in 641 ;2 the most obstinate resistance was offered by Persis proper, and especially by the capital, Istakhr (Persc- polis). In the end, all the numerous and partly autonomous provinces of the Sassanid empire fell, one after the other, into the hands of the Moslems, and the young king, Yazdegerd III. (q.v.), was compelled to retire to the farthest corner of his realm, where he came to a miserable end.3 But it was long before the Iranians learned to accept the situation. Unlike the Christians of western Asia, they had a vigorous feeling of national pride, based upon glorious memories and especially upon a church having a connexion of the closest kind with the state. Internal disturbances of a religious and political character and external disasters had long ago shattered the empire of the Sassanids indeed, but the Iranians had not yet lost their patriotism. They were fighting, in fact, against the despised and hated Arabs, in defence of their holiest possessions, their nationality and their faith. Their subjection was only external, nor did Islam ever succeed in assimilating them as the Syrian Christians were assimilated. Even when in process of time they did accept the religion of the prophet, they leavened it thoroughly with their own peculiar leaven, and, especially, deprived it of the practical political and national character which it had assumed after the flight to Medina. To the Arabian state they were always a thorn in the flesh; it was they who helped most to break up its internal order, and it was from them also that it at last received its outward death-blow. The fall of the Omayyads was their work, and with the Omayyads fell the Arabian empire. 2. Reign of Omar. — Abu Bekr died after a short reign on the 22nd of August 634, and as a matter of course was succeeded by Omar. To Omar's ten years' Caliphate belong for the most part the great conquests. He himself did not take the field, but remained in Medina with the exception of his visit to Syria in 638; he never, however, suffered the reins to slip from his grasp, so powerful was the influence of his personality and the Moslem community of feeling. His political insight is shown by the fact that he endeavoured to limit the indefinite extension of Moslem conquest, to maintain and strengthen the national Arabian character of the commonwealth of Islam,4 and especially to promote law and order in its internal affairs. The saying with which he began his reign will never grow antiquated: " by Allah, he that is weakest among you shall be in my sight the strongest, until I have vindicated for him his rights; but him that is strongest will I treat as the weakest, until he complies 2 The accounts differ ; see Baladhuri 305. The chronology of the conquests is in many points uncertain. 8 Baladhuri 315 sq.; Tabari i. 1068. 4 He sought to make the whole nation a great host of God ; the Arabs were to be soldiers and nothing else. They were forbidden to acquire landed estates in the conquered countries; all land was either made state property or was restored to the old owners subject to a perpetual tribute which provided pay on a splendid scale for the army. CALIPHATE with the laws." After the administration of justice he directed his organising activity, as the circumstance* demanded, chielly towards financial questions — the incidence of taxation in the conquered territories,1 and the application of the vast resources which poured into -the treasury at Medina. It must not be brought against him as a personal reproach, that in dealing with these he acted on the principle that the Moslems were the char- tered plunderers of all the rest of the world. But he had to atone by his death for the fault of his system. In the mosque at Medina he was stabbed by a Rufan workman and died in November 644. 3. Rfign of Otknkin. — Before his death Omar had nominated six of the leading Mohajir (Emigrants) who should choose the caliph from among themselves— Othman, Ali, Zobair, Talha, Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, and Abdarrahman b. Auf. The last-named declined to be a candidate, and decided the election in favour of Othman. . Under this weak sovereign the government of Islam fell entirely into the hands of the Koreish nobility. We have already seen that Mahomet himself prepared the way for this transference; Abu Bekr and Omar likewise helped it; the Emigrants were unanimous among themselves in thinking that the precedence and leadership belonged to them as of right. Thanks to the energy of Omar, they were successful in appro- priating to themselves the succession to the Prophet. They indeed rested their claims on the undeniable priority of their sen-ices to the faith, but they also appealed to their blood relationship with the Prophet as a corroboration of their right to the inheritance; and the ties of blood connected them with the Koreish in general. In point of fact they felt a closer con- nexion with these than, for example, with the natives of Medina; nature had not been expelled by faith.1 The supremacy of the Emigrants naturally furnished the means of transition to the supremacy of the Meccan aristocracy. Othman did all in his power to press forward this development of affairs. He belonged to the foremost family of Mecca, the Omayyads, and that he should favour his relations and the Koreish as a whole, in every possible way, seemed to him a matter of course. Every position of influence and emolument was assigned to them; they them- selves boastingly called the important province of Irak the garden of Korcish. In truth, the entire empire had become that garden. Nor was it unreasonable that from the secularization of Islam the chief advantage should be reaped by those who best knew the world. Such were beyond all doubt the patricians of Mecca, and after them those of Taif, people like Khalid b. al-Walid, Amr-ibn-el-Ass, 'Abdallah b. abi Sarh, Moghlra b. Sho'ba, and, above all, old Abu Sofian with his son Moawiya. Against the rising tide of worldliness an opposition, however, now began to appear. It was led by what may be called the spiritual noblesse of Islam, which, as distinguished from the hereditary nobility of Mecca, might also be designated as the nobility of merit, consisting of the " Defenders " (Ansar), and especially of the Emigrants who had lent themselves to the elevation of the Koreish, but by no means with the intention of allowing themselves thereby to be effaced. The opposition was headed by Ali, Zobair, Talha, both as leading men among the Emigrants and as disappointed candidates for the Caliphate. Their motives were purely selfish; not God's cause but their own, not religion but power and preferment, were what they sought.' Their party was a mixed one. To it belonged the men of real piety, who saw with displeasure the promotion to che first places in the commonwealth of the great lords who had actually done nothing for Islam, and had joined themselves to it only at the last moment. But the majority were merely a band 1 Noldeke. Tabari, 246. To Omar is due also the establishment of the Era of the Flight (Hegira). Even in the list of the slain at the battle of Honain the Emi- grants are enumerated along with the Mcccans and Koreish, and distinguished from the men of Medina. 1 It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the secular nobility that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred cities against the Omayyads. The movement triumphed with the elevation of the Abbasids to the throne. But, that the spiritual nobility was fighting not for principle but for personal advantage was as apparent in Ali's hostilities against Zobair and Talha as in that of the Abbasids against the followers of Ali. of men without views, whose aim was a change not of system, but of persons in their own interest. Everywhere in the pro- vinces there was Citation against the caliph and his governors, except in Syria, where Othman's cousin, Moawiya, son of Abu Sofian (see below), carried on a wise and strong administration. The movement was most energetic in Irak and in Egypt. Its ultimate aim was the deposition of Othman in favour of Ali, whose own services as well as his close relationship to the Prophet seemed to give him the best claim to the Caliphate. Even then there were enthusiasts who held him to be a sort of Messiah. The malcontents sought to gain their end by force. In bands they came from the provinces to Medina to wring concessions from Othman, who, though his armies were spreading terror from the Indus and Oxus to the Atlantic, had no troops at hand in Medina. He propitiated the mutineers by concessions, but as soon as they had gone, he let matters resume their old course. Thus things went on from bad to worse. In the following year (656) the leaders of the rebels came once more from Egypt and Irak to Medina with a more numerous following; and the caliph again tried the plan of making promises which he did not intend to keep. But the rebels caught him in a flagrant breach of his word,4 and now demanded his abdication, besieging him in his own house, where he was defended by a few faithful subjects. As he would not yield, they at last took the building by storm and put him to death, an old man of eighty. His death in the act of maintaining his rights was of the greatest service to his house and of corresponding disadvantage to the enemy. 4. Reign of Ali. — Controversy as to the inheritance at once arose among the leaders of the opposition. The mass of the mutineers summoned Ali to the Caliphate, and compelled even Talha and Zobair to do him homage. But soon these two, along with Ayesha, the mother of the faithful, who had an old grudge against Ali, succeeded in making their escape to Irak, where at Basra they raised the standard of rebellion. Ali in point of fact had no real right to the succession, and moreover was apparently actuated not by piety but by ambition and the desire of power, so that men of penetration, even although they condemned Othman's method of government, yet refused to recognize his successor. The new caliph, however, found means of disposing of their opposition, and at the battle of the Camel, fought at Basra in November 656, Talha and Zobair were slain, and Ayesha was taken prisoner. But even so Ali had not secured peace. With the murder of Othman the dynastic principle gained the twofold advantage of a legitimate cry — that of vengeance for the blood of the grey-haired caliph and a distinguished champion, the governor Moawiya, whose position in Syria was impregnable. The kernel of his subjects consisted of genuine Arabs, not only recent immigrants along with Islam, but also old settlers who, through contact with the Roman empire and the Christian church, had become to some extent civilized. Through the Ghassanids these latter had become habituated to monarchical government and loyal obedience, and for a long time much better order had prevailed amongst them than elsewhere in Arabia. Syria was the proper soil for the rise of an Arabian kingdom, and Moawiya was just the man to make use of the situation. He exhibited Othman's blood-stained garment in the mosque at Damascus, and incited his Syrians to vengeance. Ali's position in Kufa was much less advantageous. The population of Irak was already mixed up with Persian elements; it fluctuated greatly, and was largely composed of fresh immigrants. Islam had its headquarters here; Kufa and Basra were the home of the pious and of the adventurer, the centres of religious and political movement. This movement it was that had raised Ali to the Caliphate, but yet it did not really take any personal interest in him. Religion proved for him a less trustworthy and more dangerous support than did the conservative and secular feeling of Syria for the Omayyads. Moawiya could either act or refrain from acting as he chose, secure in either case 4 Or, at least, so they thought. The history of the letter to 'Abdallah b. abi Sarlj seems to have been a trick played on the caliph, who suspected Ali of having had a hand in it. 26 CALIPHATE of the obedience of his subjects. AH, on the other hand, was unable to convert enthusiasm for the principle inscribed on his banner into enthusiasm for his person. It was necessary that he should accommodate himself to the wishes of his supporters, which, however, were inconsistent. They compelled him suddenly to break off the battle of Siffin, which he was apparently on the point of gaining over Moawiya, because the Syrians fastened copies of the Koran to their lances to denote that not the sword, but the word of God should decide the contest (see further below, B. i; also All). But in yielding to the will of the majority he excited the displeasure of the minority, the genuine zealots, who in Moawiya were opposing the enemy of Islam, and regarded Ali's entering into negotiations with him as a denial of the faith. When the negotiations failed and war was resumed, the Kharijites refused to follow Ali's army, and he had to turn his armies in the first instance against them. He succeeded in disposing of them without difficulty at the battle of Nahrawan, but in his success he lost the soul of his following. For they were the true champions of the theocratic principle; through their elimination it became clear that the struggle had in no sense anything to do with the cause of God. Ali's defeat was a foregone conclusion, once religious enthusiasm had failed him; the secular resources at the disposal of his adversaries were far superior. Fortunately for him he was murdered (end of January 661), thereby posthumously attaining an importance in the eyes of a large part of the Mahommedan world (Shi'a) which he had never possessed during his life. B. — THE OMAYYAD DYNASTY Summary of Preceding Movements. — The conquest of Mecca had been of the greatest importance to the Prophet, not only because Islam thus obtained possession of this important city with its famous sanctuary, but above all because his late adversaries were at last compelled to acknowledge him as the Envoy of God. Among these there were many men of great ability and influence, and he was so eager to conciliate them or, as the Arabic ex- pression has it, " to mellow their hearts " by concessions and gifts, that his loyal helpers (Ansar) at Medina became dissatisfied and could only with difficulty be brought to acquiesce in it. Mahomet was a practical man; he realized that the growing state needed skilful administrators, and that such were found in much greater number among the antagonists of yesterday than among the honest citizens of Medina. The most important positions, such as the governorships of Mecca and Yemen, were entrusted to men of the Omayyad house, or that of the Makhzum and other Koreishite families. Abu Bekr followed the Prophet's example. In the great revolt of the Arabic tribes after the death of Mahomet, and in the invasion of Irak and Syria by the Moslems, the principal generals belonged to them. Omar did not deviate from that line of conduct. It was he who appointed Yazid, the son of Abu Sofian, and after his death, his brother Moawiya as governor of SyriaLand assigned the province of Egypt to Amr-ibn-el-Ass ('Amr b. As). It is even surprising to find among the leading men so few of the house of Hashim, the nearest family of the Prophet. The puzzled Moslem doctors explain this fact on the ground that the Hashimitcs were regarded as too noble to hold ordinary administrative offices, and that they could not be spared at Medina, where their counsel was required in all important affairs. There is, however, a tradition in which Ali himself calls the Omayyads born rulers. As long as Omar lived opposition was silent. But Othman had not the strong personality of his predecessor, and, although he practically adhered to the policy of Omar, he was accused of favouring the members of his own family — the caliph belonged himself to the house of Omayya — at the expense of theHashimitcsandthe Ansar. The jealousy of the latter two was prompted by the fact that the governorship and military commands had become not only much more important, but also much more lucrative, while power and money again procured many adherents. The (truly devout Moslems on the other hand were scandalized by the growing luxury which relaxed the austere morals of the first Moslems, and this also was imputed to Othman. We thus see how the power of the house of Omayya developed itself, and how there arose against it an opposition, which led in the first place to the murder of Othman and the Caliphate of Ali, and furthermore, during the whole period of the Omayyad caliphs, repeatedly to dangerous outbreaks, culminating in the great catastrophe which placed the Abbasids on the throne. The elements of this opposition were of very various kinds: — (1) The old-fashioned Moslems, sons of the Ansar and Mohdjir, who had been Mahomet's first companions and supporters, and could not bear the thought that the sons of the old enemies of the Prophet in Mecca, whom they nicknamed tolaqd (freedmen), should be in control of the imamate, which carried with it the management of affairs both civil and religious. This party was in the foreground, chiefly in the first period. (2) The partisans of Ali, the Shi'a (Shi'ites), who in proportion as their influence with the Arabs declined, contrived to strengthen it by obtaining the support of the non-Arabic Moslems, aided thereto, especially in the latter period, by the Abbasids, who at the decisive moment succeeded in seizing the supreme power for themselves. (3) The Kharijites, who, in spite of the heavy losses they sus- tained at the hands of Ali, maintained their power by gaining new adherents from among those austere Moslems, who held both Omayyads and Alids as usurpers, and have often been called, not unjustly, the Puritans of Islam. (4) The non-Arabic Moslems, who on their conversion to Islam, had put themselves under the patronage of Arabic families, and were therefore called maula's (clients). These were not only the most numerous, but also, in virtue of the persistency of their hostility, the most dangerous. The largest and strongest group of these were the Persians, who, before the conquest of Irak by the Moslems, were the ruling class of that country, so that Persian was the dominant language. With them all malcontents, in particular the Shi'ites, found support; by them the dynasty of the Omayyads and the supremacy of the Arabs was finally overthrown. To these elements of discord we must add: — (i) That the Arabs, notwith- standing the bond of Islam that united them, maintained their old tribal institutions, and therewith their old feuds and factions; (2) that the old antagonism between Ma'adites1 (original northern tribes) and Yemenites (original southern tribes), accentuated by the jealousy between the Meccans, who belonged to the former, and the Medinians, who belonged to the latter division, gave rise to perpetual conflicts; (3) that more than one dangerous pretender — some of them of the reigning family itself — contended with the caliph for the sovereignty, and must be crushed coute que cofite. It is only by the detailed enumera- tion of these opposing forces that we can form an idea of the heavy task that lay before the Prince of the Believers, and of the amount of tact and ability which his position demanded. The description of the reign of the Omayyads is extremely difficult. Never perhaps has the system of undermining authority by continual slandering been applied on such a scale as by the Alids and the Abbasids. The Omayyads were accused by their numerous missionaries of every imaginable vice; in their hands Islam was not safe; it would be a godly work to extirpate them from the earth. When the Abbasids had occupied the throne, they pursued this policy to its logical conclusion. But not content with having exterminated the hated rulers themselves, they carried their hostility to a further point. The official history of the Omayyads, as it has been handed down to us, is coloured by Abbasid feeling to such an extent that we can scarcely distinguish the true from the false. An example of this occurs at the outset in the assertion that Moawiya deliberately refrained from marching to the help of Othman, and indeed that it was with secret joy that he heard of the fatal result of the plot. The facts seem to contradict this view. When, ten weeks before the murder, some hundreds of men came to Medina from Egypt and Irak, pretending that they were on their pilgrimage to Mecca, but wanted to bring before the caliph their complaints against his vicegerents, nobody could have the slightest suspicion that the life of the caliph was in danger; indeed it was only during 1 Ma'ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Modar and the Rab'Ia tribes. Qais is the principal branch of the Mocjar. CALIPHATE the few days that Othman was besieged in his house that the danger became obvious. If the caliph then, as the dironiders tell, sent a message toMoawiya for help, liis nu->senger could not have accomplished half the journey to Damascus when the catastrophe took place. There is no real reason to doubt that the painful news fell on Mnawiya unexprrtrdly, and that hi-, as mightiest representative of the Omayyad house, regarded as his own the duty of avenging the crime. He could not but view Ali in the light of an accomplice, because if, as he protested, he did not abet the murderers, yet he took them under his protection. An acknowledgment of Ali as caliph by Moawiya before he had cleared himself from suspicion was therefore quite impossible. i. The Reign of Moawiya. — Moawiya, son of the well-known Mo urn chief Abu Sofi&n, embraced Islam together with his father and his brother Yazid, when the Prophet conquered Mecca, and was, like them, treated with the greatest distinction. He was even chosen to be one of the secretaries of Mahomet. When Abu Bekr sent his troops for the conquest of Syria, Yazid, the eldest son of Abu Sofian, held one of the chief commands, with Moawiya as his lieutenant. In the year 639 Omar named him governor of Damascus and Palestine; Othman added to this province the north of Syria and Mesopotamia. To him was committed the conduct of the war against the Byzantine emperor, which he continued with energy, at first only on land, but later, when the caliph had at last given in to his urgent representations, at sea also. In the year 34 (A.D. 655) was fought off the coast of Lycia the great naval battle, which because of the great number of masts has been called "the -mast fight," in which the Greek1 fleet, commanded by the emperor Constans II. in person, was utterly defeated. Moawiya himself was not present, as he was conducting an attack (the result of which we do not know) on Caesarea in Cappadocia. The Arabic historians are so entirely preoccupied with the internal events that they have no eye for the war at the frontier. The contention which Moawiya had with Ah checked his progress in the north. Moawiya was a born ruler, and Syria was, as we have seen, the best administered province of the whole empire. He was so loved and honoured by his Syrians that, when he invited them to avenge the blood of Othman, they replied unanimously, " It is your part to command, ours to obey." Ah' was a valiant man, but had no great talent as a ruler. His army numbered a great many enthusiastic partisans, but among them not a few wise- acres; there were also others of doubtful loyalty. The battle at SitTin (657), near the Euphrates, which lasted two months and consisted principally in, sometimes bloody, skirmishes, with alternate success, ended by the well-known appeal to the decision of the Koran on the part of Moawiya. This appeal has been called by a European scholar "one of the unworthiest comedies of the whole world's history," accepting the report of very partial Arabic writers that it happened when the Syrians were on the point of losing the battle. He forgot that Ali himself, before the Battle of the Camel, appealed likewise to the decision of the Koran, and began the fight only when this had been rejected. There is in reality no room for suspecting Moawiya of not having been in earnest when making this appeal; he might well regret that internecine strife should drain the forces which were so much wanted for the spread of Islam. That the Book of God could give a solution, even of this arduous case, was doubtless the firm belief of both parties. But even if the appeal to the Koran had been a stratagem, as Ali himself thought, it would have been perfectly legitimate, according to the general views of that time, which had been also those of the Prophet. It is not unlikely that the chief leader of the Yemenites in Ali's army, Ash'ath b. Qais, knew beforehand that this appeal would be made. Cer- tainty is not to be obtained in the whole matter. On each side an umpire was appointed, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, the candidate of Ash'ath, on that of Ali, Amr-ibn-cl-Ass (q.v.) on that of Moawiya. The arbitrators met in the year 37 (A.D. 658) *t Adhrob, in the south-east of Syria, where are the ruins of the Roman C'astra described by Brlinnow and Domaszewsky (Die Provincia Arabia, I. 433-463). Instead of this place, the 1 The Arabs always call them Rum, i.e. Romans. historians generally put DQmat-al-Jandal, the biblical Duma, now called Jauf, but this rests on feeble authority. The various accounts about what happened in this interview are without exception untrustworthy. J. Wcllhausen, in his excellent book Das arabische Reich und sein Sliirz, has made it very probable that the decision of the umpires was that the choice of Ali as caliph should be cancelled, and that the task of nominating a successor to Othman should be referred to the council of notable men (s/iOra), as representing the whole community. Ali refusing to submit to this decision, Moawiya became the champion of the law, and thereby gained at once considerable support for the conquest of Egypt, to which above all he directed his efforts. As soon as Amr returned from Adhroh, Moawiya sent him with an army of four or five thousand men against Egypt. About the same time the constitutional party rose against Ali's vicegerent Mahommed, son of Abu Bekr, who had been the leader of the murderous attack on Othman. Mahommed was beaten, taken in his flight, and, according to some reports, sewn in the skin of an ass and burned. Moawiya, realizing that Ali would take all possible means to crush him, took his measures accordingly. He concluded with the Greeks a treaty, by which he pledged himself to pay a large sum of money annually on condition that the emperor should give him hostages as a pledge for the maintenance of peace. Ali, however, had first to deal with the insurrection of the Kharijites, who condemned the arbitration which followed the battle of Siffin as a deed of infidelity, and demanded that Ali should break the compact (see above, A. 4) . Freed from this difficulty, Ali prepared to direct his march against Moawiya, but his soldiers declined to move. One of his men, Khirrlt b. RSshid, renounced him altogether, because he had not submitted to the decision of the umpires, and persuaded many others to refuse the payment of the poor-rate. Ali was obliged to subdue him, a task which he effected not without difficulty. Not a few of his former partisans went over to Moawiya, as already had happened before the days of Siffin, amongst others Ali's own brother 'Aqil. Lastly, there were in Kufa, and still more in Basra, many Othmaniya or legitimists, on whose co-operation he could not rely. Moawiya from his side made incessant raids into Ali's dominion, and by his agents caused a very serious revolt in Basra. The statement that a treaty was concluded between Moawiya and Ali to maintain the status quo, in the beginning of the year 40 (A.D. 660), is not very probable, for it is pretty certain that just then Ali had raised an army of 40,000 men against the Syrians, and also that in the second or third month of that year Moawiya was proclaimed caliph at Jerusalem. At the same time Bosr b. Abi Artat made his expedition against Medina and Mecca, whose inhabitants were compelled to acknowledge the caliphate of Moawiya. On the murder of Ali in 661, his son Hasan was chosen caliph, but he recoiled before the prospect of a war with Moawiya, having neither the ambition nor the energy of Ali. Moawiya stood then with a large army in Maskin, a rich district lying to the north of the later West Bagdad, watered by the Dojail, or Little Tigris, a channel from the Euphrates to the Tigris. The army of Trak was near Madam, the ancient Ctesiphon. The reports about what occurred are confused and contradictory; but it seems probable that Abdallah b. Abbas, the vicegerent of Ali at Basra and ancestor of the future Abbasid dynasty, was in command. No battle was fought. Hasan and Ibn Abbas opened, each for himself, negotiations with Moawiya. The latter made it a condition of surrender that he should have the free disposal of the funds in the treasury of Basra. Some say that he had already before the death of Ali rendered himself master of it. Notwith- standing the protest of the Basrians, he transported this booty safely to Mecca. When his descendants had ascended the throne and he had become a demi-saint, the historians did their best to excuse his conduct. Hasan demanded, in exchange for the power which he resigned, the contents of the treasury at Kufa, which amounted to five millions of dirhems, together with the revenues of the Persian province of Darabjird (Darab). When these nego- tiations became known, a mutiny broke out in Hasan's camp. Hasan himself was wounded and retired to Medina, where he CALIPHATE died eight or nine years afterwards. The legend that he was poisoned by order of Moawiya is without the least foundation. It seems that he never received the revenues of Darabjird, the Basrians to whom they belonged refusing to cede them. Moawiya now made his entry into Kufa in the summer of A.H. 41 (A.D. 661) and received the oath of allegiance as Prince of the Believers. This year is called the year of union (jamd'a). Moghlra b. Sho'ba was appointed governor of Kufa. Homran b. Aban had previously assumed the government of Basra. This is represented commonly as a revolt, but as Homran was a client of Othman, and remained in favour with the Omayyads, it is almost certain that he took the management of affairs only to maintain order. One strong antagonist to Moawiya remained, in the person of Ziyad. This remarkable man was said to be a bastard of Abu Sofian, the father of Moawiya, and was, by his mother, the brother of Abu Bakra, a man of great wealth and position at Basra. He thus belonged to the tribe of Thaqlf at Taif, which produced many very prominent men. At the age of fourteen years Ziyad was charged with the financial administration of the Basrian army. He had won the affection of Omar, by his know- ledge of the Koran and the Sunna of the Prophet, and by the fact that he had employed the first money he earned to purchase the freedom of his mother Somayya. He was a faithful servant of Ali and put down for him the revolt excited by Moawiya's partisans in Basra. Thence he marched into Fars and Kirman, where he maintained peace and kept the inhabitants in their allegiance to Ali. After Ali's death he fortified himself in his castle near Istakhr and refused to submit. Moawiya, therefore, sent Bosr b. Abi Artat to Basra, with orders to capture Ziyad's three sons, and to force Ziyad into submission by threatening to kill them. Ziyad was obdurate, and it was due to his brother Abu Bakra, who persuaded Moawiya to cancel the order, that the threat was not executed. On his return to Damascus, Moawiya charged Moghlra b. Sho'ba to bring his countryman to reason. Abdallah b. 'Amir was made governor of Basra. As soon as Moawiya had his hands free, he directed all his forces against the Greeks. Immediately after the submission of Irak, he had denounced the existing treaty, and as early as 662 had sent his troops against the Alans and the Greeks. Since then, no year passed without a campaign. Twice he made a serious effort to conquer Constantinople, in 669 when he besieged it for three months, and in 674. On the second occasion his fleet occupied Cyzicus, which it held till shortly after his death in 680, when a treaty was signed. In Africa also the extension of Mahommedan power was pursued energetically. In 670 took place the famous march of 'Okba ('Oqba) b. Nafi' and the founda- tion of Kairawan, where the great mosque still bears his name. Our information about these events, though very full, is untrust- worthy, while of the events in Asia Minor the accounts are scarce and short. The Arabic historians are still absorbed by the events in Irak and Khorasan. The talented prefect of Kufa, Moghlra b. Sho'ba, eventually broke down the resistance of Ziyad, who came to Damascus to render an account of his administration, which the caliph ratified. Moawiya seems also to have acknowledged him as the son of Abu Sofian, and thus as his brother; in 664 this recogni- tion was openly declared.1 In the next year Ziyad was appointed governor of Basra and the eastern provinces belonging to it. As the austere champion of the precepts of Islam, he soon restored order in the whole district. Outwardly, this was the case in Kufa also. A rising of Kharijites in the year 663 had ended in the death of their chief. But the Shi'ites were dissatisfied and 1 A single genealogist, Abu Yaqa?an, says that he was a legiti- mate son of Abu Sofian, and that his mother was Asma, daughter of A'war. But all others call his mother Somayya, who is said to have been a slave-girl of Hind, the wife of Abu Sofian, and who became later also the mother of Abu Bakra. We cannot make out whether Abu Sofian acknowledged him as his son or not. At a later period, the Abbasid caliph Mandi had the names of Ziyad and his descendants struck off the rolls of the Koreish ; but, after his death, the persons concerned gained over the chief of the rolls office, and had their names replaced in the lists (see Tabari iii. 479). even dared to give public utterance to their hostility. Moghlra contented himself with a warning. He was already aged and had no mind to enter on a conflict. He died about the year 670, and his province also was entrusted to Ziyad, who appointed 'Amr b. Horaith as his vicegerent. At a Friday service in the great mosque 'Amr was insulted and pelted with pebbles. Ziyad then came himself, arrested the leader of the Shi'ites, and sent fourteen rebels to Damascus, among them several men of consideration. Seven of them who refused to pledge themselves to obedience were put to death; the Shi'ites considered them as martyrs and accused Moawiya of committing a great crime. But in Kufa peace was restored, and this not by military force, but by the headmen of the tribes. We must not forget that Kufa and Basra were military colonies, and that each tribe had its own quarter of the city. A wholesome diversion was provided by the serious re- sumption of the policy of eastern expansion, which had been interrupted by the civil war. For this purpose Irak had to furnish the largest contingent. The first army sent by Ziyad into Khorasan recaptured Merv, Herat and Balkh, conquered Tokharistan and advanced as far as the Oxus. In 673 'Obai- dallah, the son of Ziyad, crossed the river, occupied Bokhara, and returned laden with booty taken from the wandering Turkish tribes of Transoxiana. He brought 2000 Turkish archers with him to Basra, the first Turkish slaves to enter the Moslem empire. Sa'Id, son of the caliph Othman, whom Moawiya made governor of Khorasan, in 674 marched against Samarkand. Other generals penetrated as far as the Indus and conquered Kabul, Sijistan, Makran and Kandahar. Ziyad governed Irak with the greatest vigour, but as long as discontent did not issue in action, he let men alone. At his death (672-673), order was so generally restored that " nobody had any more to fear for life or estate, and even the unprotected woman was safe in her house without having her door bolted." Moawiya was a typical Arab sayyid (gentleman) . [He governed, not by force, but by his superior intelligence, his self-control, his mildness and magnanimity. The following anecdote may illustrate this. One of Moawiya's estates bordered on that of Abdallah b. Zobair, who complained in a somewhat truculent letter that Moawiya's slaves had been guilty of trespassing. Moawiya, disregarding his son Yazid's advice that he should exact condign punishment for Zobair's disrespect, replied in flattering terms, regretting the trespass and resigning both slaves and estate to Zobair. In reply Zobair protested his loyalty to Moawiya, who thereupon pointed a moral for the instruction of Yazid. Moawiya has been accused of having poisoned more than one of his adversaries, among them Malik Ashtar, Abdarrahman the son of the great captain Khalid b. Walid, and Hasan b. Ali. As for the latter, European scholars have long been agreed that the imputation is groundless. As to Abdarrahman the story is in the highest degree improbable. Madaini says that Moawiya was prompted to it, because when he consulted the Syrians about the choice of his son Yazid as his successor, they had proposed Abdarrahman. The absurdity of this is obvious, for Abdarrah- man died in the year 666.1 Others say2 that Moawiya was afraid lest Abdarrahman should become too popular. Now, Abdarrah- man had not only been a faithful ally of Moawiya in the wars with Ali, but after the peace devoted all his energy to the Greek war. It is almost incredible that Moawiya out of petty jealousy would have deprived himself of one of his best men. The probability is that Abdarrahman was ill when returning from the frontier, that Moawiya sent him his own medical man, the Christian doctor Ibn Othal, and that the rumour arose that the doctor had poisoned him. It is remarkable withal that this rumour circulated, not in Horns (Emesa) , where Abdarrahman died, but in Medina. There a young relation of Abdarrahman was so roused by the taunt that the death of his kinsman was unavenged, that he killed Ibn Othal near the mosque of Damascus. Moawiya imprisoned him and let him pay a high ransom, the law not permitting the talio against a Moslem for having killed a Christian. The story that 1 Aghani xx. p, 13, Ibn abi Osaibia i. p. 118. ' Tabari ii. p. 82. CALIPHATE 29 this relative was Khalid, the son of Abdarrahman, is absurd in- asmuch as Moawiya made this Khalid commander against the Greeks in succession to his father. In the third case — that of Malik Ashlar — the evidence is equally inadequate. In fact, since Moawiya did not turn the weapon of assassination against such men as Abdallah b. Zobair and Hosain b. Ali, it is unlikely that he used it against less dangerous persons. These two men were the chief obstacles to Moawiya 's plan for securing the Caliphate for his son Yazid. The leadership with the Arabic tribes was as a rule hereditary, the son succeeding his father, but only if he was personally fit for the position, and was acknowledged as such by the principal men of the tribe. The hereditary principle had not been recognized by Islam in the cases of Abu Bckr, Omar and Othman; it had had some influence upon the choice of Ali, the husband of Fatima and the cousin of the Prophet. But it had been adopted entirely for the election of Hasan. The example of Abu Bekr proved that the caliph had the right to appoint his successor. But this appointment must be sanctioned by the principal men, as representing the community. Moawiya seems to have done his best to gain that approbation, but the details given by the historians are altogether unconvincing. This only seems to be certain, that the succession of Yazid was generally acknowledged before the death of his father, except in Medina. (See MAHOHMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) Moawiya died in the month of Rajab 60 (A.D. 680). His last words are said to have been: " Fear ye God, the Elevated and Mighty, for God, Praise be to Him, protects the man that fears Him; he who does not fear God, has no protection." Moawiya was, in fact, a religious man and a strict disciple of the precepts of Islam. We can scarcely, therefore, credit the charges made by the adversaries of his chosen successor Yazid, that he was a drinker of wine, fond of pleasure, careless about religion. All the evidence shows that, during the reign of the Omayyads, life in Damascus and the rest of Syria was austere and in striking contrast to the dissolute manners which prevailed in Medina. 2. Rule of Yazid. — When Moawiya died, the opposition had already been organized. On his accession Yazid sent a circular to all his prefects, officially announcing his father's death, and ordering them to administer the oath of allegiance to their subjects. In that sent to Walld b. 'Otba, the governor of Medina, he enclosed a private note charging him in particular to administer the oath to Hosain, Abdallah b. Omar and Abdallah b. Zobair, if necessary, by force. Walld sent a messenger inviting them to a conference, thus giving them time to assemble their followers and to escape to Mecca, where the prefect Omar b. Sa'Id could do nothing against them. In the month Ramadan this Omar was made governor of Medina and sent an army against Ibn Zobair. This army was defeated, and from that time Ibn Zobair was supreme at Mecca. On the news of Yazid's accession, the numerous partisans of the family of Ah* in Kufa sent addresses to Hosain, inviting him to take refuge with them, and promising to have him proclaimed caliph in Irak. Hosain, having learned that the majority of the inhabitants were apparently ready to support him strenuously, prepared to take action. Meanwhile Yazid, having been in- formed of the riotous behaviour of the Shi'ites in Kufa, sent Obaidallah, son of the famous Ziyad and governor of Basra, to restore order. Using the same tactics as his father had used before, Obaidallah summoned the chiefs of the tribes and made them responsible for the conduct of their men. On the 8th of Dhu'l-Hijja Hosain set out from Mecca with all his family, expecting to be received with enthusiasm by the citizens of Kufa, but on his arrival at Kerbela west of the Euphrates, he was confronted by an army sent by Obaidallah under the command of Omar, son of the famous Sa'd b. Abi Waqqas, the founder of Kufa. Hosain gave battle, vainly relying on the promised aid from Kufa, and fell with almost all his followers on the loth of Muharram 61 (loth of October 680). Xo other issue of this rash expedition could have been expected. But. as it involved the grandson of the Prophet, the son of Ah', and so many members of his family, Hosain's devout partisans at Kufa, who by their overtures had been the principal cause of the disaster, regarded it as a tragedy, and the facts gradually acquired a wholly romantic colouring. Omar b. Sa'd and his officers, Obaidallah and even Yazid came to be regarded as murderers, and their names have ever since been held accursed by all Shi'ites. They observe the loth of Muharram, the day of ' AshQra, as a day of public mourning. Among the Persians, stages are erected on that day in public places, and plays are acted, representing the misfortunes of the family of Ali.1 " Revenge for Hosain " became the watchword of all Shi'ites, and the Meshed Hosain (Tomb of the martyr Hosain) at Kerbela is to them the holiest place in the world (see KKRBELA). Obaidallah sent the head of Hosain to Damascus, together with the women and children and Ali b. Hosain, who, being ill, had not taken part in the fight. Yazid was very sorry for the issue, and sent the prisoners under safe-conduct to Medina. Ali remained faithful to the caliph, taking no share in the revolt of the Medinians, an4^fl«Tn« was stil] on his way back when Suleiman died at Dabiq in northern Syria, which was the base of the expeditions into Asia Minor. He seems not to have had the firmness of character nor the frugality of Walid; but he was very severe against the looseness of manners that reigned at Medina, and was highly religious. Raja b. Haywa, renowned for his piety, whose influence began under Abdalmalik and increased under Walid, was his constant adviser and even determined him to designate as his successor his devout cousin Omar b. Abdahizlz. Suleiman was kind towards the Alids and was visited by several of them, amongst others by Abu 1 1 ft shim, the son of Mahommed b. al Hanaflya, who after his father's death had become the secret Imam (head) of the Shi'ites. On his way back to Hejaz this man visited the family of Abdal'ah b. "Abbas, which resided at Homaima. a place situated in the vicinity of "Amman, and died there, after having imparted to Mahommed b. Ali b. Abdallah b. Abbas the names of the chiefs of the Shi'a in Irak and Khorasan, and disclosed his way of corresponding with them. From that time the Abbasids began their machinations against the Omayyads in the name of the family of the Prophet, avoiding all that could cause suspicion to the Shi'ites, but holding the strings firmly in their own hands. 8. Reign of Omar II. — Omar b. Abdalaziz did his best to imitate his grandfather Omar in all things, and especially in maintaining the simple manner of life of the early Moslems. He was, however, born in the midst of wealth; thus frugality became asceticism, and in so far as he demanded the same rigour from his relatives, he grew unjust and caused uneasiness and discontent. By paying the highest regard to integrity in the choice of his officers, and not to ability, he did not advance the interests of his subjects, as he earnestly wished to do. In the matter of taxes, though actuated by the most noble designs, he did harm to the public revenues. The principle of Islam was, that no Moslem, whatever might be his nationality, should pay any tax other than the zakdt or poor-rate (see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS). In practice, this privilege was confined to the Arabic Moslems. Omar wished to maintain the principle. The original inhabitants had been left on the conquered lands as agriculturists, on condition of paying a fixed sum yearly for each district. If one of these adopted Islam, Omar permitted him to leave his place, which had been strictly forbidden by H.ijjaj in Irak and the eastern provinces, because by it many hands were withdrawn from the tilling of the ground, and those who remained were unable to pay the allotted amount. Omar's system not only diminished the actual revenue, but largely increased in the cities the numbers of the mania's (clients), mainly Persians, who were weary of their dependency on their Arabic lords, and demanded equal rights for themselves. Their short dominion in Kufa under Mokhtar had been suppressed, but the discontent continued. In North Africa particularly, and in Khorasan the effect of Omar's proclamation was that a great multitude embraced Islam. When it became necessary to impose a tribute upon the new converts, great discontent arose, which largely increased the number of those who followed the Shi'itc preachers of revolt. Conversion to Islam was promoted by the •evcrc regulations which Omar introduced for the non-believers, such as Christians and Jews. It was he who issued those humiliat- ing rescripts, which are commonly but unjustly attributed to Omar I. But he forbade extortion and suppressed more than 1 Scyid Ameer Ali, A Critical Examination of the Life and Teach- ing* j liakomet, pp. 341-543- one illegal impost. He endeavoured above all to procure justice for all his subjects. Complaints against oppression found in him a ready listener, and many unlawfully acquired possessions were restored to the legal owners, for instance, to the descendants of Ali and Talha. Even to the Kharijites he contrived to give satisfaction, as far as possible. In all these matters he followed the guidance of divines am 1 devotees, in whose congenial company he delighted. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at that these men saw in Omar the ideal of a prince, and that in Moslem history he has acquired the reputation of a saint. After the failure of the siege of Constantinople, the advanced posts in Asia Minor were withdrawn, but the raids were continued regularly. It has been said that it was Omar's intention to give up his Spanish conquests, but the facts argue the contrary. The governor, named by Omar, Samh b. Abdallah, even crossed the Pyrenees and took possession of Narbonnc; but he was beaten and killed at Toulouse in July 720. But Omar did all he could to prevent the degradation of the Holy War, which, instead of being the ultimate expedient for the propagation of Islam, if all other means had failed, had often degenerated into mere pillaging expeditions against peaceful nations. 9. Reign of Yazid II. — Omar's reign was as short as that of his predecessor. He died on the 24th of Rajab 101 (A.D. gth February 720). Yazid II., son of Abdalmalik and, by his mother 'Atika, grandson of Yazid I., ascended the throne without opposi- tion. He had at once, however, to put down a dangerous rebellion. Yazid b. Mohallab had returned to Irak, after the conquest of Jorjan, when Suleiman was still alive. Shortly after, Adi b. Artat, whom Omar II. had appointed governor, arrived, arrested Yazid, and sent him to Omar, who called him to account for the money he had mentioned in his letter to Suleiman, and imprisoned him when he pretended not to be able to pay the amount. Yazid II. had personal grounds for ill-will to Yazid b. Mohallab. One of the wives of the new caliph, the same who gave birth to that son of Yazid II. who afterwards reigned as Walid II., was niece to the celebrated Hajjaj, whose family had been ill-treated by the son of Mohallab, when he was governor of Irak under Suleiman. Aware that Yazid b. Abdalmalik, on ascending the throne, would spare neither him nor his family, Yazid b. Mohallab had succeeded in escaping to Basra, the home of his family, where his own tribe the Azd was predominant. Meanwhile "Adi b. Artat had all the brothers of Yazid and other members of the family of Mohallab arrested, and tried to prevent Yazid from entering the city. But 'Adi was too scrupulous to employ the public money for raising the pay of his soldiers, whilst Yazid promised mountains of gold. Yazid stormed the castle and took 'Adi prisoner, the public treasury fell into his hands, and he employed the money to pay his troops largely and to raise fresh ones. A pardon obtained for him from the caliph came too late; he had already gone too far. He now proclaimed a Holy War against the Syrians, whom he declared to be worse enemies of Islam than even the Turks and the Dailam. Notwith- standing the warnings of the aged Hasan al-Basrl, the friend of Omar II., the religious people, took the part of Yazid, and were followed by the maulas. Though the number of his adherents thus increased enormously, their military value was small. Ahwaz (KhuzistSn), Fars and Kirman were easily subdued, but in Khorasan the Azd could not prevail over the Tamim, who were loyal to the caliph. As the rebellion threatened to spread far and wide, Yazid II. was obliged to appeal to his brother, the celebrated Maslama. With the approach of the Syrians, Yazid b. Mohallab tried to forestall them at Kufa. He took his way over Wasit, which he mastered — the Syrian garrison seems to have been withdrawn in the days of Omar II. — but, before he could get hold of Kufa, the Syrian troops arrived. The meeting took place at 'Aqr in the vicinity of Babel, and Yazid was completely defeated and fell in the battle. His brothers and sons fled to Basra; thence they went by sea to Kirman and then to Kandabll in India; but they were pursued relentlessly and slain with only two exceptions by the officers of Maslama. The possessions of the Mohallabitcs were confiscated. Maslama was rewarded with the governorship of Irak and CALIPHATE Khorasan, but was soon replaced by Omar b. Hobaira, who under Omar II. had been governor of Mesopotamia. He belonged to the tribe of Qais, and was very severe against the Azd and other Yemenite tribes, who had more or less favoured the part of Yazid b. Mohallab. In these years the antagonism between Qais (Modar) and Yemenites became more and more acute, especially in Khorasan. The real cause of the dismissal of Maslama was, that he did not send the revenue-quota to Damascus. Omar b. Hobaira, to supply the deficiency, ordered the prefect of Khorasan, Sa'Id-al-IJarashl, to take tribute from the Sogdians in Transoxiana, who had embraced Islam on the promise of Omar II. The Sogdians raised a revolt in Ferghana, but were subdued by Sa'id and obliged to pay. A still more questionable measure of Ibn Hobaira was his ordering the successor of Sa'id HarashI to extort large sums of money from several of the most respectable Khorasanians. The discontent roused thereby became one of the principal causes of the fall of the Omayyads. In Africa serious troubles arose from the same cause. Yazid b. Abi Moslim, who had been at the head of the financial department in Irak under Hajjaj, and had been made governor of Africa by Yazid II., issued orders that the villagers who, having adopted Islam, were freed from tribute according to the promise of Omar II., and had left their villages for the towns, should return to their domiciles and pay the same tribute as before their conver- sion. The Berbers rose in revolt, slaughtered the unfortunate governor, and put in his place the former governor Mahommed b. Yazid. The caliph at first ratified this choice, but soon after dismissed Mahommed from his post, and replaced him by Bishr b. Safwan, who under Hisham made an expedition against Sicily. Yazid II. was by natural disposition the opposite of his prede- cessor. He did not feel that anxiety for the spiritual welfare of his subjects which had animated Omar II. Poetry and music, not beloved by Suleiman and condemned by Omar, were held by him in great honour. Two court-singers, Sallama and Hababa , exercised great influence, tempered only by the austerity of manners that prevailed in Syria. He was so deeply affected by the death of Hababa, that Maslama entreated him not to exhibit his sorrow to the eyes of the public. He died a few days later, on the 26th of January 724, according to the chroniclers from grief for her loss. As his successor he had appointed in the first place his brother Hisham, and after him his own son Walid. 10. Reign of Hisham. — Hisham was a wise and able prince and an enemy of luxury, not an idealist like Omar II., nor a worldling like Yazid II., but more like his father Abdalmalik, devoting all his energy to the pacification of the interior, and to extending and consolidating the empire of Islam. But the dis- content, which had been sown under his predecessors, had now developed to such an extent that he.could not suppress it in detail. His first care was to put an end to the tyrannical rule of the Qaisites (Modarites) in Irak and Khorasan by dismissing Omar b. Hobaira and appointing in his place Khalid al-Qasri. This very able man, who under Hajjaj had been prefect of Mecca, belonged properly neither to trie Qaisites nor to the Yemenites, but as he took the place of Ibn Hobaira and dis- missed his partisans from their posts, the former considered him as their adversary, the latter as their benefactor. After his death, in particular, the Yemenites celebrated him as their chief, and assigned as the reason for their revolt the injuries which he suffered. Khalid himself assuredly did not intend it. He was a loyal servant of the dynasty, and remained such even after receiving very harsh treatment from them. For fifteen years Khalid governed the eastern half of the empire, and continued to maintain peace with only few exceptions throughout. He did much for the reclaiming and improving of lands in Irak, in which the caliph himself and several princes took an active part. The great revenues obtained thereby naturally caused much jealousy. Khalid lived on a very rich scale and was extra- ordinarily liberal, and he was charged with having carried out all his improvements for his own interests, and upbraided for selling the corn of his estates only when the prices were high. To these charges were added the accusation that he was too tolerant to Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians. As his mother professed the Christian religion, he was accused of infidelity. At last a conspiracy, into which the principal engineer of Khalid, Hassan the Nabataean, had been drawn, succeeded in inciting Hisham against Khalid. They told him that Khalid had used disrespectful terms in speaking of the caliph, and that he had appropriated revenues belonging to the state. The latter imputation especially influenced Hisham, who was very parsi- monious. When the dismissal of Khalid had been resolved upon, Yusuf b. Omar, his appointed successor, was sent secretly to Kufa, where he seized on Khalid unawares. For eighteen months Khalid remained in prison. But when he declined even under torture to confess that he had been guilty of extensive peculation, he was finally released. He settled at Damascus and made a noble return for his injuries by taking an active part in the war against the Greeks. In the summer of A.D. 740, while he was in Asia Minor, a great fire broke out in Damascus, the guilt of which was attributed to Khalid. Though it soon appeared that the imputation was false, Khalid, on his return, was furious, and uttered very offensive words against the caliph. Hisham, how- ever, would not again punish his old servant; on the contrary, he seems to have regarded his indignation as a proof of innocence. The successor of Khalid in Irak had not long been in office when Zaid b. Ali, grandson of Hosain b.-Ali, who had come to Kufa for a lawsuit, was persuaded by the chiefs of the Shi'a to organize a revolt. He succeeded in so far that 15,000 Kufians swore to fight with him for the maintenance of the command- ments of the Book of God and the Sunna (orthodox tradition) of his Prophet, the discomfiture of the tyrants, the redress of injury, and last, not least, the vindication of the family of the Prophet as the rightful caliphs. The revolt broke out on the 6th of January 740. Unfortunately for Zaid he had to do with the same Kufians whose fickleness had already been fatal to his family. He was deserted by his troops and slain. His body was crucified in Kufa, his head sent to Damascus and thence to Medina. His son Yahya, still a youth, fled to Balkh in Khorasan, but was discovered at last and hunted down, till he fell sword in hand under Walid II. Abu Moslim, the founder of the Abbasid dynasty, proclaimed himself his avenger, and on that occasion adopted the black garments, which remained the distinctive colour of the dynasty. In Khorasan also there were very serious disturbances. The Sogdians, though subdued by Sa'id al Harashi, were not appeased, but implored the assistance of the Turks, who had long been contending earnestly against the Arabs for the dominion of Transoxiana. They found besides a most valuable ally in Harith b. Soraij, a distinguished captain of the Arabic tribe of Tamim, who, with many pious Moslems, was scandalized by the government's perfidy in regard to the new converts. Harith put himself at the head of all the malcontents, and raised the black flag, in compliance with a Sibylline prophecy, holding that the man with the black flag (the Prophet's flag) would put an end to the tyranny, and be the precursor of the Mahdi.1 The government troops suffered more than one defeat, but in the last month of the year 118 (A.D. 736) the governor Asad al- Qasri, the brother of Khalid, after having defeated Harith, gained a brilliant victory over the Turks, which finally caused them to retreat. Asad died almost simultaneously with the dismissal of Khalid. Hisham then separated Khorasan from Irak and chose as governor of the former Nasr b. Sayyar, a valiant soldier who had grown grey in war, and who, besides all his other capacities, was an excellent poet. Na§r instituted a system of taxation, which, if it had been introduced earlier, would perhaps have saved the Arabic domination. It was that which later on was generally adopted, viz. that all possessors of conquered lands (i.e. nearly the whole empire except Arabia), whether Moslems or not, should pay a fixed tax, the latter in addition to pay a poll-tax, from which they were relieved on conversion to Islam. During the reign of Hisham, Nasr made a successful expedition against Harith and the Turks. The 1 Cf. Van Vloten, Recherches sur la domination arabe, le Chiitisme et les croyances messianiques sous le Khalifat des Omayades (Amster- dam, 1894), p. 63 seq. CALIPHATE 37 propaganda of the Shi'a by the Abbasids was continued in these years with great zeal. In India several provinces which had been converted to Islam under the Caliphate of Omar II. declared themselves independent , because the promise of equal rights for all Moslems was not kept under the reign of his successors. This led to the evacuation of the eastern part of India (called Hind by the Arabs, Sind being the name of the western part), and to the founding of the strong cities of MahiO; .1 and Mansura for the purpose of controlling the land. In the north and north-west of the empire there were no internal disorders, but the Moslems had hard work to maintain themselves against the Alans and the Khazars. In the year 112 (A.D. 730) they suffered a severe defeat, in which the general Jarrih perished. But the illustrious Maslama b. Abdalmalik, •nd Merwan b. Mahommed (afterwards caliph), governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan (Adherbaijan), succeeded in repelling the Khazars, imposing peace on the petty princes of the eastern Caucasus, and consolidating the Arab power in that quarter. The war against the Byzantines was continued with energy during the whole of Hisham's reign. Moawiya, the son of Hisham, whose descendants reigned later in Spain, was in com- mand lill 118 (A.D. 736), when he met his death accidentally in Asia Minor by a fall from his horse. After his death, Suleiman, another son of the caliph, had the supreme command. Both were eager and valiant warriors. But the hero of all the battles was Abdallah b. Hosain, surnamed al-Battal (the brave). He has been the subject of many romantic tales. Tabari tells how he took the emperor Constant ine prisoner in the year 114 (A.D. 732; but Constantine V. Copronymus only began to reign in 740 or 741 A.D.); another Arabic author places this event in the year 122, adding that al-Battal, having defeated the Greeks, was attacked and slain in returning with his captives. The Greek historians say nothing about Constantine having been made prisoner. It is probable that the Arabs took another Greek soldier for the prince.1 The victories of the Moslems had no lasting results. During the troubles that began in the reign of Walid II., the Greeks reconquered Marash (Germanicia), Malatia (Malatiyeh) and Erzerum (Thcodosiopolis). In Spain the attention of the Moslems was principally turned to avenge the defeat of Samh beyond the Pyrenees. As early as the second year of the reign of Hisham, 'Anbasa, the governor of Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, and pushed on military operations vigorously. Carcassonne and Nlmes were taken, Autun sacked. The death of 'Anbasa in A.D. 725 and internal troubles put a stop to further hostilities. The Berbers were the chief contingent of the Moslem troops, but were treated by their Arab masters as inferior people. They began to resent this, and one of their chiefs. Munisa (Munuza), made himself independent in the north and allied himself with Odo, king of Aquitaine, who gave him his daughter in marriage. In the year 113 Abdarrahman b. Abdallah subdued Munisa, crossed the mountains and penetrated into Gascony by the valley of Ronccsvallcs. The Moslems beat Odo, gained possession of Bordeaux, and overran the whole of southern Gaul nearly as far as the Loire. But in October 732 their march was checked between Tours and Poitiers by Charles Martcl and after some days of skirmishing a fierce but indecisive battle was fought. Abdarrahman was among the skin and the Moslems retreated hastily in the night, leaving their camp to the Franks. They were, however, not yet discouraged. In 739 the new governor of Spain, Oqba (Aucupa) b. Hajjaj, a man of high qualities, re-entered Gaul and pushed forward his raids as far as Lyons, but the Franks again drove back the Arabs as far as Narbonne. Thenceforth the continual revolts of the Berbers in Africa, and the internal troubles which disturbed Spain until the reign of Abdarrahman I., effectually checked the ambition of the Moslems. In Africa the hand of government pressed heavily. The Berbers, though they had pledged themselves to Islam and had furnished the latest contingents for the Holy War, were treated as tributary serfs, notwithstanding the promises given by Omar II. The Kharijites, of whom a great many had emigrated 1 Cf. \Vrllhaiivn. Die Kdmpfe der Araber mil den Rom. in der Zfil der Umaijiden (Gottingen, 1901), p. 31. to Africa, found them eager listeners. Still, they could not believe that it was according to the will of the caliph that they here thus treated, until a certain number of their chiefs went as a deputation to Hisham, but failed to obtain an audience. There- upon a fierce insurrection broke out, against which the governor of Africa was powerless. Hisham at once sent an army of more than 30,000 men, under the command of Kolthum al-Qoshairl, and Balj b. Bishr. Not far from the river Sabu in Algeria,2 the meeting with the army of the insurgents took place (A.D. 740). Kolthdm was beaten and killed; Balj b. Bishr led the rest of the Syrian army to Ceuta, and thence, near the end of 741, to Spain, where they aided in the suppression of the dangerous revolt of the peninsular Berbers. Balj died in 742. A year later the governor, Abu'l-Khattir, assigned to his troops for settlement divers countries belonging to the public domain.' An effort of the African Berbers to make themselves masters of Kairawan failed, their army being utterly defeated by the governor Han?ala. Hisham died in February 743, after a reign of twenty years. He had not been wanting in energy and ability, and kept the reins of the government in his own hands. He was a correct Moslem and tolerant towards Christians and Jews. His financial ad- ministration was sound and he guarded against any misuse of the revenues of the state. But he was not popular. His residence was at Rosafa on the border of the desert, and he rarely admitted visitors into his presence; as a rule they were received by his chamberlain Abrash. Hisham tried to keep himself free from and above the rival parties, but as his vicegerents were inexorable in the exaction of tribute, the Qaisites against the Yemenites, the Yemenites against the Qaisites, both parties alternately had reason to complain, whilst the non-Arabic Moslems suffered under the pressure and were dissatisfied. He caused a large extent of land to be brought into cultivation, and many public works to be executed, and he was accused of overburdening his subjects for these purposes. Therefore, Yazid III. (as also the Abbasids) on taking office undertook to abstain from spending money on building and digging. The principle that a well-filled treasury is the basis of a prosperous government was pushed by him too far. Notwithstanding his activity and his devotion to the management of affairs, the Moslem power declined rather than advanced, and signs of the decay of the Omayyad dynasty began to show themselves. The history of his four successors, Walid II., Yazid III., Ibrahim and Merwan II., is but the history of the fall of the Omayyads. n. Reign of Walid II. — Walid II. was a handsome man, possessed of extraordinary physical strength, and a distinguished poet. But Hisham, to whom he was successor-designate, foolishly kept him in the background, and even made earnest efforts to get his own son Maslama acknowledged as his successor. Walid therefore retired to the country, and passed his time there in hunting, cultivating poetry, music and the like, waiting with impatience for the death of Hisham and planning vengeance on all those whom he suspected of having opposed him. His first public action was to increase the pay of all soldiers by 10 dirhems, that of the Syrians by 20. The Omayyads who came to pay their respects to him received large donations. Many philanthropic institutions were founded. As to the family of his predecessor, he contented himself with confiscating their posses- sions, with the single exception of Suleiman b. Hisham, whom he had whipped and put in prison. But the Makhzumites, who were related to Hisham by his mother, he deprived of all their power and had them tortured to death. The vicegerents of Hisham were replaced by Qaisites; Yusuf b. Omar, the governor of Irak, being a Qaisite, was not only confirmed in his office, but received with it the supreme command of Khorasan. He made use of it immediately by ordering Nasr b. Sayyar to collect a rich present of horses, falcons, musical instruments, golden and silver vessels and to offer it to the caliph in person, but before the present was ready the news came that Walid had been murdered. 1 BaySn i. p. 42 ; Dozy, Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne, i. p. 246, names the place Bacdoura or Nafdoura, the Spanish chronist Nauam. ' Dozy i. p. 268. CALIPHATE It is not certain that Walid also suspected Khalid al-Qasrl of having intrigued against him. But Yusuf b. Omar did not rest until he had his old enemy in his power. It is said that he guaranteed Walid a large sum of money, which he hoped to extort from Khalid. This unfortunate man died under torture, which he bore with fortitude, in Muharram 126 (November 743)- Walid designated his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate. These were still under age and were not the children of a free- born, noble mother. Both circumstances, according to the then prevailing notions, made them unfit for the imamate. Moreover, it was an affront, in particular, for the sons of Walid I., who already had considered the nomination of Yazid II. as a slight to themselves. A conspiracy arose, headed by Yazid b. Walid I., and joined by the majority of the Merwanid princes and many Kalbites and other Yemenites who regarded the ill-treatment of Khalid al-Qasrl as an insult to themselves. Various stories were circulated about the looseness of Walid's manner of life; Yazid accused him of irreligion, and, by representing himself as a devout and God-fearing man, won over the pious Moslems. The conspirators met with slight opposition. A great many troops had been detached by Hisham to Africa and other provinces, the caliph himself was in one of his country places; the prefect of Damascus also was absent. Without difficulty, Yazid made himself master of Damascus, and immediately sent his cousin Abdalazlz with 2000 men against Walid, who had not more than 200 fighting men about him. A few men hastened to the rescue, among others 'Abbas b. Walid with his sons and followers. Abdalazlz interrupted his march, took him prisoner and compelled him to take the oath of allegiance to his brother Yazid. Walid's small body of soldiers was soon overpowered. After a valiant combat, the caliph retired to one of his apartments and sat with the Koran on his knee, in order to die just as Othman had died. He was killed on the iyth of April 744. His head was taken to Damascus and carried about the city at the end of a spear. On the news of the murder of the caliph, the citizens of Horns (Emesa) put at their head Abu Mahommed as-Sofianl, a grandson of Yazid I., and marched against Damascus. They were beaten by Suleiman b. Hisham at a place called Solaimanla, 12 m. from the capital. Abu Mahommed was taken prisoner and shut up with several of his brethren and cousins in the Khadra, the old palace of Moawiya, together with the two sons of Walid II. One or two risings in Palestine were easily suppressed. But the reigning family had committed suicide. Their unity was broken. The holiness of their Caliphate, their legitimate authority, had been trifled with; the hatred of the days of Merj Rahit had been revived. The orthodox faith also, whose strong representative and defender had hitherto been the caliph, was shaken by the fact that Yazid III. belonged to the sect of the Qadaris who rejected the doctrine of predestination. The disorganization of the empire was at hand. 1 2. Reign of Yazid III. — Yazid III., on his accession, made a fine speech, in which he promised to do all that could be expected from a good and wise ruler, even offering to make place im- mediately for the man whom his subjects should find better qualified for the Caliphate than himself. He cancelled, however, the increase of the pay granted by Walid and thus earned the nickname of the Naqi$ (diminisher) . As he owed his position to the aid of the Kalbites, he chose his officers from among them. The governorship of Irak was confided to a Kalbite, Man§ur b. Jomhur, a hot-headed and unscrupulous man. Yusuf b. Omar was unable to offer resistance, and was ultimately taken and confined in the Khadra. Manjur had hardly been three months in office when Yazid replaced him by Abdallah, son of Omar II. The distant provinces, with the exception of Sind and Sijistan, renounced the authority of the new caliph. In Africa Abdarrah- man b. Habib, a descendant of the famous 'Oqba b. Nail", was almost independent. In Spain every amir tried to free himself from a suzerainty which appeared to him only nominal. Nasr b. Sayyar, the governor of Khorasan, had not yet decided whether he ought to take the oath of allegiance when Yazid died, after a reign of only five months and a half, on the I2th of Dhu'l-Hijja A.H. 126 (25th September A.D. 744). 13. Yazid III. left his brother Ibrahim as his successor. He was acknowledged as caliph only in a part of Syria, and reigned no longer than two months, when he was obliged to abdicate and to submit to the authority of Merwan II. 14. Merwan II., the son of Mahommed b. Merwan and cousin of Maslama, was a man of energy, and might have revived the strength of the Omayyad dynasty, but for the general disorder which pervaded the whole empire. In 73 2 Hisham had entrusted to him the government of Armenia and Azerbaijan, which he held with great success till the death of Walid II. He had great military capacity and introduced important reforms. On the murder of Walid he prepared to dispute the supreme power with the new caliph, and invaded Mesopotamia. Yazid III., in alarm, offered him as the price of peace the government of this province together with Armenia and Azerbaijan. Merwan resolved to accept those conditions, and sent a deputation to Damascus, which, however, had just reached Manbij (Hiera- polis) when Yazid died. Leaving his son Abdalmalik with 40,000 men in Rakka, Merwan entered Syria with 80,000 men. Sulei- man b. Hisham, at the head of 1 20,000 men, was defeated at 'Ain al-Jarr, between Baalbek and Damascus. Merwan made many prisoners, whom he treated with the greatest mildness, granting them freedom on condition that they should take the oath of allegiance to the sons of Walid II. He then marched upon Damascus. But Suleiman b. Hisham, Yazid, the son of Khalid al-Qasri, and other chiefs, hastened to the Khadra and killed the two princes, together with Yusuf b. Omar. Suleiman then made himself master of the treasury and fled with the caliph Ibrahim to Tadmor (Palmyra). Only Abu Mahommed as-Sofiani escaped the murderers. When Merwan entered Damascus this man testified that the sons of Walid II., who had just become adult, had named Merwan successor to the Caliphate, and was the first to greet him as Prince of the Believers. All the generals and officers followed his example and took the oath of allegiance (7th December A.D. 744). Merwan did all he could to pacify Syria, permitting "the Arabs of the four provinces to choose their own prefects, and even acquiescing in the selection as prefect of Palestine of Thabit b. No'aim, who had behaved very treacherously towards him before, but whom he had forgiven. He did not, however, wish to reside in Damascus, but trans- planted the seat of government to his own town, Harran in Mesopotamia. Suleiman b. Hisham and Ibrahim tendered their submission and were pardoned. But the pacification was only on the surface. Many Omayyad princes considered Merwan as an upstart, his mother being a slave-girl; the Damascenes were angry because he had chosen Harran for his residence; the Kalbites felt themselves slighted, as the Qaisites predominated. Thabit b. No'aim revolted in Palestine, Emesa (Horns) and Tadmor were turbulent, Damascus was besieged by Yazid b. Khalid al Qasri. Merwan, who wanted to march against Irak, was obliged to return to Syria, where he put an end to the troubles. This time Thabit b. No'aim had to pay for his perfidy with his life. After this new pacification, Merwan caused the Syrians to acknowledge his two sons as heirs to the Caliphate, and married them to two daughters of Hisham. All the Omayyad princes were invited to the wedding, Merwan hoping still to conciliate them. He then equipped 10,000 Syrians, and ordered them to rejoin the army of 20,000 men from Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin) and Mesopotamia, who, under Yazid b. Omar b. Hobaira, were already on the march towards Irak. When these Syrians came to Rosafa (Rusafa), Suleiman b. Hisham persuaded them to proclaim himself caliph, and made himself master of Kinnesrin. From all sides Syrians flocked to his aid till he had 70,000 men under his orders. Merwan im- mediately ordered Ibn Hobaira to stop his march and to wait for him at Dunn, and marched with the main force against Suleiman, whom he utterly defeated at Khosaf in the district of Kinnesrin. Suleiman fled to Horns and thence to Tadmor and on to Kufa, leaving his brother Sa'id in Horns. The siege of this place by Merwan lasted nearly five months. After the victory the walls CALIPHATE 39 were demolished, and likewise those of Baalbek, Damascus, Jerusalem and other towns. Syria was utterly crushed, and therewith the bulwark of the dynasty was destroyed. Not until the summer of 128 (A.D. 746) could Merwan resume his campaign •gainst Irak. The governor of this province, Abdallah, the son of Omar II., was a man of small energy, whose principal care was his personal ease and comfort. An ambitious man, Abdallah b. Moawiya, a great-grandson of Ali's brother Ja'far, put himself at the head of a band of Shi'ites and muuAu, made himself master of Kufa and inarched upon Hira, where, since YQsuf b. Omar, the governor and the Syrian troops had resided. The rebels were defeated, and Kufa surrendered (October 744) under condition of amnesty for the insurgents and freedom for Abdallah b. Moawiya. This adventurer now went into Media (Jabal), where a great number of manias and Shi'ites, even members of the reigning dynasty and of the Abbasid family, such as the future caliph Mansur, rejoined him. With their help he became master of a vast empire, which, however, lasted scarcely three years. Ibn Omar did not acknowledge Merwan as caliph. For the moment Merwan coold do no more than send a new governor, Ibn Sa'Id al Harashl. This officer was supported only by the ite troops, the Kalbiu-s, who were numerically superior, maintaining Ibn Omar in his residence at Hira. There were many skirmishes between them, but a common danger soon forced them to suspend their hostilities. The general disorder after the death of Hisham had given to the Khawarij an oppor- tunity of asserting their claims such as they had never had before. They belonged for the greater part to the Rabi'a, who always stood more or less aloof from the other Arabs, and had a particular grudge against the Modar. Their leading tribe, the Shaiban, possessed the lands on the Tigris in the province of Mosul, and here, after the murder of Walid II., their chief proclaimed himself caliph. Reinforced by many Kharijites out of the northern provinces, he marched against Kufa. Ibn Omar and Ibn Sa'Id al Harashl tried to defend their province, but were completely defeated. Harashl fled to Merwan, Ibn Omar to Hira, which, after a siege of two months, he was obliged to surrender in Shawwal 127 (August A.D. 743)- MansQr b. Jomhur was the first to pass over to the Khawarij; then Ibn Omar himself took the oath of allegiance. That a noble Koreishite, a prince of the reigning house, should pledge himself to follow p.ihhak the Shaibanite as his Imam, was an event of which the Khawarij were very proud. Ibn Omar was rewarded with the government of eastern Irak, Khuzistan and Pars. Whilst Merwan besieged Horns, I.)ahhak returned to Meso- potamia and took Mosul, whence he threatened Nisibis, where Abdallah, the son of Merwan, maintained himself with difficulty. Suleiman b. Hisham also had gone over to the Khawarij, who now numbered 1 20,000 men. Mesopotamia itself was in danger, when Merwan at last was able to march against the enemy. In a furious battle at Kafartutha (September A.D. 746) the Khawarij were defeated; Pahhak and his successor Khaibari perished; the survivors were obliged to retire to Mosul, where they crossed the Tigris. Merwan followed them and encamped on the western bank. Immediately after the battle of Kafartutha, Yazid b. Omar b. Hobaira directed his troops towards Irak. He beat the Kharijites repeatedly and entered Kufa in May or June 747. Ibn Omar was taken prisoner; Man;ur b. Jomhur fled to Ibn Moawiya. Ibn Hobaira was at last free to send Ibn Pobara with an army to Mesopotamia. At his approach the Kharijites left their camp and fled to Abdallah b. Moawiya, who was now at the height of his power. But it was not destined to last. The two generals of Ibn Hobaira, Ibn Pobara and Nobata b. Hanzala defeated his army; Ibn Moawiya fled to Khorasan, where he met his death; the chief of the Kharijites, Shaiban Yashkori went to eastern Arabia; Suleiman b. Hisham and Mansur b. Johmur escaped to India. Thus, at last, the western and south-eastern parts of the empire lay at the feet of Merwan. But in the north- east, in Khorasan, meanwhile a storm had arisen, against which his resources and his wisdom were alike of no avail. When the news of the murder of Walid II. reached Khorasan, Nasr b. Sayyar did not at once acknowledge the Caliphate of Yazid III., but induced the Arab chiefs to accept himself as amir of Khorasan, until a caliph should be universally acknowledged. Not many months later (Shawwal 126) he was confirmed in his post by Yusuf b. Omar, the governor of Irak. But Nasr had a personal enemy, the chief of the Azd (Yemenites) Jodai" al- Kirmanl, a very ambitious man. A quarrel arose, and in a short time the Azd under KirmanI, supported by the Rabi'a, who always were ready to join the opposition, were in insurrection, which Nasr tried in vain to put down by concessions. So stood matters when Harith b. Soraij, seconded by Yazid III., reappeared on the scene, crossed the Oxus and came to Merv. Nasr received him with the greatest honour, hoping to get his aid against KirmanI, but Harith, to whom 3000 men of his tribe, the Tamlm, had gone over, demanded Nasr's abdication and tried to make himself master of Merv. Having failed in this, he allied himself with KirmanI. Nasr could hold Merv no longer, and retired to Nishapur. But the Tamlm of Harith could not endure the supremacy of the Azd. In a moment the allies were divided into two camps; a battle ensued, in which Harith was defeated and killed. Originally, Harith seems to have had the highest aims, but in reality he did more than any one else to weaken the Arabic dominion. He brought the Turks into the field against them; he incited the native population of Transoxiana against their Arab lords, and stirred up discord between the Arabs themselves. Being a Tamimite, he belonged to the Modar, on whom the government in Khorasan depended; but he aided the Yemenites to gain the upper hand of them. Thus he paved the way for Abu Moslim. Since the days of Ali there had been two tendencies among the Shi'ites. The moderate party distinguished itself from the other Moslems only by their doctrine that the imamate belonged legally to a man of the house of the Prophet. The other party, that of the ultra-Shi'ites, named Hashimiya after Abu Hashim the son of Mahommed b. al-Hanaflya, preached the equality of all Moslems, Arabs or non-Arabs, and taught that the same divine spirit that had animated the Prophet, incorporated itself again in his heirs (see SHI'ITES). After the death of Hosain, they chose for their Imam Mahommed b. al-Hanafiya, and at his decease his son Abu Hashim, from whom Mahommed b. Ali, the grandson of Abdallah b. Abbas, who resided at Homaima in the south-east of Syria, obtained the secrets of the party and took the lead (A.H. 98, see above). This Mahommed, the father of the two first Abbasid caliphs, was a man of unusual ability and great ambition. He directed his energies primarily to Khorasan. The missionaries were charged with the task of undermining the authority of the Omayyads, by drawing attention to all the injustices that took place under their reign, and to all the luxury and wantonness of the court, as contrasted with the misery of many of their subjects. God would not suffer it any longer. As soon as the time was ripe — and that time could not be far off — He would send a saviour out of the house of the Prophet, the Mahdi, who would restore Islam to its original purity. All who desired to co-operate in this holy purpose must pledge themselves to unlimited obedience to the Imam, and place their lives and property at his disposal. As a proof of their sincerity they were required at once to pay a fixed sum for the Imam. The missionaries had great success, especially among the non- Arabic inhabitants of Khorasan and Transoxiana. Mahommed b. Ali died A.H. 126 (A.D. 743-744), and his son Ibrahim, the Imam, took his place. Ibrahim had a confidant about whose antecedents one fact alone seems certain, that he was a mattla (client) of Persian origin. This man, Abu Moslim by name, was a man of real ability and devoted to his master's cause. To him, in 745-746, the management of affairs in Khorasan was entrusted, with instructions to consult in all weighty matters the head of the mission, the Arab Suleiman b. Kathlr. At first the chiefs of the mission were by no means prepared to recognize Abu Moslim as the plenipotentiary of the heir of the Prophet. In the year 1 2q he judged that the time for open manifestation had arrived. His partisans were ordered to assemble from all sides on a fixed day at Siqadenj in the province of Merv. Then, on the ist Shawwal (151)1 June 747), the first solemn meeting took CALIPHATE place and the black flags were unfolded. On that occasion Suleiman b. Kathir was still leader, but by the end of the year Abu Moslim, whom the majority believed to belong himself to the family of the Prophet, was the acknowledged head of a strong army. Meantime, Nasr had moved from Nishapur tO'Merv, and here the two Arabic armies confronted each other. Then, at last, the true significance of Abu Moslim 's work was recognized. Nasr warned the Arabs against their common enemy, " who preaches a religion that does not come from the Envoy of God, and whose chief aim is the extirpation of the Arabs." In vain he had entreated Merwan and Ibn Hobaira to send him troops before it should be too late. When at last it was possible to them to fulfil his wish, it was in fact too late. For a moment it seemed as though the rival Arab factions, realizing their common peril, would turn their combined forces against the Shi'ites. But Abu Moslim contrived to re-awaken their mutual distrust and jealousy, and, taking advantage of the opportunity, made himself master of Merv, in Rabia II. A.H. i3o(December 747). Nasr escaped only by a headlong flight to Nishapur. This was the end of the Arabic dominion in the East. Many Arab chiefs were killed, partly by order of Abu Moslim, partly by their clients. The latter, however, was strictly forbidden by Abu Moslim. So severe indeed was the discipline he exercised, that one of the chief missionaries, who by a secret warning had rendered possible the escape of Nasr from Merv, paid for it with his life. As soon as Abu Moslim had consolidated his authority, he sent his chief general Qahtaba against Nishapur. Nasr's son Tamlm was vanquished and killed, and Nasr retreated to Kumis (Qumis) on the boundary of Jorjan, whither also advanced from the other side Nobata at the head of an army sent by Merwan. Qahtaba detached his son IJasan against Nasr and went himself to meet Nobata, whom he beat on the ist of Dhu'l-hijja 130 (6th August 748). Nasr could not further resist. He reached Sawa in the vicinity of Hamadan, where he died quite exhausted, at the age of eighty-five years. Rei and Hamadan were taken without serious difficulty. Near Nehawend, Ibn Pobara, at the head of a large army, encountered Qahtaba, but was defeated and killed. In the month of Dhu'l-qa'da 131 (June 749) Nehawend (Nehavend) surrendered, and thereby the way to Irak lay open to Qahtaba. Ibn Hobaira was overtaken and compelled to retire to Wasit. Qahtaba himself perished in the combat, but his son Hasan entered Kufa without any resistance on the 2nd of September 749. Merwan had at last discovered who was the real chief of the movement in Khorasan, and had seized upon Ibrahim the Imam and imprisoned him at Harran. There he died, probably from the plague, though Merwan was accused of having killed him. When the other Abbasids left Homaima is not certain. But they arrived at Kufa in the latter half of September 749, where in the meantime the head of the propaganda, Abu Salama, called the wazir of the family of Mahomet, had previously undertaken the government. This Abu Salama seems to have had scruples against recognizing Abu'l-Abbas as the successor of his brother Ibrahim, and to have expected that the Mahdi, whom he looked for from Medina, would not be slow in making his appearance, little thinking that an Abbasid would present himself as such. But Abu Jahm, on the instructions of Abu Moslim, declared to the chief officers of the Khorasanian army that the Mahdi was in their midst, and brought them to Abu'l-Abbas, to whom they swore allegiance. Abu Salama also was constrained to take the oath. On Friday, the I2th Rabia II. A.H. 132 (28th November 749) Abu'l-Abbas was solemnly proclaimed caliph in the principal mosque of Kufa. The trick had been carried out admirably. On the point of gathering the ripe fruit, the Alids were suddenly pushed aside, and the fruit was snatched away by the Abbasids. The latter gained the throne and they took good care never to be deprived of it. After the conquest of Nehawend, Qahtaba had detached one of his captains, Abu 'Aun, to Shahrazur, where he defeated the Syrian army which was stationed there. Thereupon Abu 'Aun occupied the land of Mosul, where he obtained reinforcements from Kufa, headed by Abdallah b. Ali, an uncle of Abu'l-Abbas, who was to have the supreme command. Merwan advanced to meet him, and was completely defeated near the Greater Zab, an affluent of the Tigris, in a battle which lasted eleven days. Merwan retreated to Harran, thence to Damascus, and finally to Egypt, where he fell in a last struggle towards the end of 132 (August 750). His head was cut off and sent to Kufa.1 Abu Aun, who had been the real leader of the campaign against Merwan, remained in Egypt as its governor. Ibn Hobaira, who had been besieged in Wasit for eleven months, then con- sented to a capitulation, which was sanctioned by Abu'l-Abbas. Immediately after the surrender, Ibn Hobaira and his principal officers were treacherously murdered. In Syria, the Omayyads were persecuted with the utmost rigour. Even their graves were violated, and the bodies crucified and destroyed. In order that no members of the family should escape, Abdallah b. Ali pre- tended to grant an amnesty to all Omayyads who should come in to him at Abu Fotros (Antipatris) and acknowledge the new caliph, and even promised them the restitutionof alltheirproperty. Ninety men allowed themselves to be entrapped, and Abdallah invited them to a banquet. When they were all collected, a body of executioners rushed into the hall and slew them with clubs. He then ordered leathern covers to be thrown upon the dying men, and had the banquet served upon them. In Medina and Mecca Da'ud b. Ali, another uncle of Abu'l-Abbas, con- ducted the persecution; in Basra, Suleiman b. Ali. Abu'l-Abbas himself killed those he could lay his hands on in Hira and Kufa, amongst them Suleiman b. Hisham, who had been the bitterest enemy of Merwan. Only a few Omayyads escaped the massacre, several of whom were murdered later. A grandson of Hisham, Abdarrahman, son of his most beloved son Moawiya, reached Africa and founded in Spain the Omayyad dynasty of Cordova. With the dynasty of the Omayyads the hegemony passes finally fr6m Syria to Irak. At the same time the supremacy of the Arabs came to an end. Thenceforth it is not the contingents of the Arabic tribes which compose the army, and on whom the government depends; the new dynasty relies on a standing army, consisting for the greater part of non-Arabic soldiers. The barrier that separated the Arabs from the conquered nations begins to crumble away. Only the Arabic religion, the Arabic language and the Arabic civilization maintain themselves, and spread more and more over the whole empire. C. — THE ABBASIDS We now enter upon the history of the new dynasty, under which the power of Islam reached its highest point. i. Abu'l-Abbas inaugurated his Caliphate by a harangue in which he announced the era of concord and happiness which was to begin now that the House of the Prophet had been restored to its right. He asserted that the Abbasids were the real heirs of the Prophet, as the descendants of his oldest uncle Abbas. Addressing the Kufians, he said, " Inhabitants of Kufa, ye are those whose affection towards us has ever been constant and true; ye have never changed your mind, nor swerved from it, notwithstanding all the pressure of the unjust upon you. At last our time has come, and God has brought you the new era. Ye are the happiest of men through us, and the dearest to us. I increase your pensions with 100 dirhems; make now your preparations, for I am the lavish shedder of blood2 and the avenger of blood." Notwithstanding these fine words, Abu'l-Abbas did not trust 1 Merwan has been nicknamed al-Ja'di and al-Himar (the Ass). As more than one false interpretation of these names has been given, it is not superfluous to cite here Qaisarani (ed. de Jong, p. 31), who says on good authority that a certain al-Ja'd b. Durham, killed under the reign of Hisham for heretical opinions, had followers in Mesopotamia, and that, when Merwan became caliph, the Khora- sanians called him a Ja'd, pretending that all'Ja'd had been his teacher. As to al-Himar this was substituted also by the Khorasanians for his usual title, al-Faras, " the race-horse." 8 The Arabic word for " shedder of blood," as-Safah, which by that speech became a name of the caliph, designates the liberal host who slaughters his camels for his guests. European scholars have taken it unjustly in the sense of the bloodthirsty, and found in it an allusion to the slaughter of the Omayyads and many others. At the same time, it was not without much bloodshed that Abu'l- Abbas finally established his power. CALIPHATE the Kulians. Ho resided outside the town with tin- Khorusanian troops, and with them wont first to Hira, then to Hashimiyu, which he caused to be built in the neighbourhood of Anbur. For their real sympathies, he knew, wcro with the house of Ali, and Abu Salama their leader, who had reluctantly taken the oath of allegiance, did not conceal his disappointment. Abu Jahm, the vizier (V.P.; also MAHDMMI : \\ INSTITUTIONS), or " helper," of Abu Muslim, advised that Abu Ja'far, the caliph's brother, should be sent to Khorasan to consult Abu Muslim. The result was that Abu Salama was assassinated, and at the same time Suleiman b. Kathir, who had been the head of the propaganda in Rhorasan, and bad also expected that the Mahdi would belong to the house of Ali. It is said that Abu Ja'far, whilst in Khorasan, was so impressed by the unlimited power of Abu Muslim, and saw so dearly that, though he called his brother and himself his masters, he considered them as his creatures, that he vowed his death at the, first opportunity. The ruin of the Omayyad empire and the rise of the new dynasty did not take place without mighty convulsions. In Bathanlya and the Hauran, in the north of Syria, in Mesopo- tamia and Irak Khorasan insurrections had to be put down with fire and sword. The new caliph then distributed the provinces among the principal members of his family and his generals. To his brother Abu Ja'far he gave Mesopotamia, Azerbaijan and Armenia; to his uncle Abdallah b. Ali, Syria; to his uncle Da'ud, Hejaz, Yemen and Yamama (Yemama); to his cousin 'Isa b. Musa, the province of Kufa. Another uncle, Suleiman b. Ah', received the government of Basra with Bahrein and Oman; Ismi 'il b. Ali that of Ahwaz; Abu Moslim, Khora- san and Transoxiana; Mahommed b. Ash ath, Pars; Abu 'Aun, Egypt. In Sind the Omayyad governor, Mansur b. Jomhur, had succeeded in maintaining himself, but was defeated by an army sent against him under Musa b. Ka'b, and the black standard of the Abbasids was raised over the city of Mansura. Africa and Spain are omitted from this catalogue, because the Abbasids never gained any real footing in Spain, while Africa remained, at least in the first years, in only nominal subjection to the new dynasty. In 754 Abu Moslim came to Irak to visit Abu'l-Abbas and to ask his permission to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He was received with great honour, but the caliph said that he was sorry not to be able to give him the leadership of the pilgrimage, which he had already purposely entrusted to his brother, Abu Ja'far. Abu'l-Abbas died on the 1 3th of Dhu'l-hijja 136 ($th June 754). He seems to have been a man of limited capacity, and had very little share in the achievements accomplished in his name. He initiated practically nothing without the consent of Abu Jahm, who was thus the real ruler. In the few cases where he had to decide, he acted under the influence of his brother Abu Ja'far. a. Reign of Mansur. — Abu'l-Abbas had designated as his successors first Abu Ja'far, surnamed al-Mansflr (the victorious), and after him his cousin 'Isa b. Musa. Abu Ja'far was, according to the historians, older than Abu'l-Abbas, but while the mother of the latter belonged to the powerful Yemenite tribe of al- Harith b. Ka'b, the mother of Abu Ja'far was a Berber slave-girl. But he was a son of Mahommed b. Ali, and was therefore pre- ferred by Abu Moslim to his uncles and cousins. Abu'l-Abbas, however, had promised the succession to his uncle Abdallah b. Ali, when he marched against Merwan. When the news of the death of Abu'l-Abbas reached Abdallah, who at the head of a numerous army was on the point of renewing the Byzantine war, he came to Harran, furious at his exclusion, and proclaimed himself caliph. Abu Moslim marched against him, and the two armies met at Nisibis, where, after a number of skirmishes, a decisive engagement took place (zSth November 754). Abdallah was defeated and escaped to Basra, where he found a refuge with his brother Suleiman. A year later he asked for pardon, and took the oath of allegiance to Mansur. The caliph spared his life for a time, but he did not forget. In 764 Abdallah met his death by the collapse of his house, which had been deliberately undermined. The first care of Mansur was now to get rid of the powerful Abu Muslim, who had thus by another brilliant service strengthened his great reputation. On pretence of conferring with him on important business of state, Mansur induced him, in spite of the warnings of his best general, Abu Nasr, to come to Madam (Ctesiphon), and in the most jjerfidious manner caused him to be murdered by his guards. Thus miserably perished the real founder of the Abbasid dynasty, the §dhib addaula, as he is commonly called, the Amln (trustee) of the House of the Prophet. A witty man, being asked his opinion about Abu Ja'far (Mansur) and Abu Moslim, said, alluding to the Koran 21, verse 22, " if there were two Gods, the universe would be ruined." The Khorasanian chiefs were bribed into submission, and order was at last re-established by Mansur's general Khazim b. Khozaima in Mesopotamia, and by Abu Da'ud, the governor of Khorasan in the east. About the same time Africa1 and Spain escaped from the dominion of the eastern Caliphate; the former for a season, the latter permanently. The cause of the revolt of Africa was as follows. Mansur had written to Abdarrahman, announcing the death of Abu'l-Abbas, and requiring him to take the oath of allegiance. Abdarrahman sent in his adhesion, together with a few presents of little value. The caliph replied by a threatening letter which angered Abdarrahman. He called the people to- gether at the hour of prayer, publicly cursed Mansur from the pulpit and declared him deposed. He next caused a circular letter, commanding all Maghribins to refuse obedience to the caliph, to be read from the pulpit throughout the whole extent of the Maghrib (western North Africa). A brother of Abdarrah- man, Ilyas, saw in this revolt an opportunity of obtaining the government of Africa for himself. Seconded by many of the inhabitants of Kairawan, who had remained faithful to the cause of the Abbasids, he attacked his brother, slew him, and pro- claimed himself governor in his stead. This revolution in favour of the Abbasids was, however, not of long duration. Habib, the eldest son of Abdarrahman, who had fled in the night of his father's murder, was captured, but the vessel which was to convey him to Spain having been detained by stress of weather, his partisans took arms and rescued him. Ilyas was marching against them, when the idea occurred to Habib of challenging him to single combat. Ilyas hesitated, but his own soldiers compelled him to accept the challenge. He measured arms with Habib, and was slain. The party of independence thus triumphed, but in the year 144 (761) Mahommed b. Ash'ath, the Abbasid general, entered Kairawan and regained posses- sion of Africa in the name of the eastern caliph. From the year 800, it must be added, Africa only nominally belonged to the Abbasids; for, under the reign of Harun al-Rashid, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, who was invested with the government of Africa, founded in that province a distinct dynasty, that of the Aghlabites. At the same time as the revolt in Africa, the independent Caliphate of the western Omayyads was founded in Spain. The long dissensions which had preceded the fall of that dynasty in the East had already prepared the way for the independence of a province so distant from the centre of the empire. Every petty amir then tried to seize sovereign power for himself, and the people groaned under the consequent anarchy. Weary of these commotions, the Arabs of Spain at last came to an understanding among themselves for the election of a caliph, and their choice fell upon one of the last survivors of the Omayyads, Abdarrah- man b. Moawiya, grandson of the caliph Hisham. This prince was wandering in the deserts of Africa, pursued by his implacable enemies, but everywhere protected and concealed by the desert tribes, who pitied his misfortunes and respected his illustrious origin. A deputation from Spain sought him out in Africa and offered him the Caliphate, which he accepted with joy. On the ist Rabia I. 138 (i4th August 755) Abdarrahman landed in the Iberian peninsula, where he was universally welcomed, and * The rule of the caliphs in Morocco, which had never been firmly established, had already, in 740, given place to that of independent princes (see MOROCCO, History). V. 20 CALIPHATE speedily founded at Cordova the Western Omayyad Caliphate (see SPAIN: History). While Mansur was thus losing Africa and Spain, be was trying to redeem the losses the empire had sustained on the northern frontier by the Byzantines. In 750-751 the emperor Constantino V. (Copronymus) had unsuccessfully blockaded Malatia; but five years later he took it by force and razed its wall to the ground. Mansur now sent in 757 an army of 70,000 men under the com- mand of his cousin Abdalwahhab, the son of Ibrahim the Imam, whom he had made governor of Mesopotamia, the real chief being Hasan b. Qahtaba. They rebuilt all that the emperor had destroyed, and made this key of Asia Minor stronger than ever before. The Moslems then made a raid by the pass of Hadath (Adata) and invaded the land of the Byzantines. Two aunts of the caliph took part in this expedition, having made a vow that if the dominion of the Omayyads were ended they would wage war in the path of God. Constantine advanced with a numerous army, but was afraid of attacking the invaders. The Moslems also rebuilt Mopsuestia. But from 758 till 763 Mansur was so occupied with his own affairs that he could not think of further raids. In 758 (others say in 753 or 754) a body of 600 sectaries, called Rawendis (?.».), went to Hashimiya, the residence of the caliph, not far from Kufa. They believed that the caliph was their lord, to whom they owed their daily bread, and came to pay him divine honours. They began by marching in solemn procession round the palace, as if it had been the Ka'ba. Mansur being told of it said: " I would rather they went to hell in obedience to us, than to heaven in disobedience." But as they grew tumul- tuous, and he saw that this impious homage gave offence to his men, he caused the principal leaders to be seized and thrown into prison. The Rawendis immediately rose in revolt, broke the prison doors, rescued their chiefs, and returned to the palace. The unfortunate fanatics were hunted down and massacred to the last man, and thereby the ties that bound the Abbasids to the ultra-Shi'ites were severed. From that time forward the Abbasid caliphs became the maintainers of orthodox Islam, just as the Omayyads had been. The name of Hashimiya, which the reigning family still retained, was henceforward derived not from Abu Hashim, but from Hashim, the grandfather of Abbas, the great-grandfather of the Prophet. A much greater danger now threatened Mansur. In the last days of the Omayyads, the Shi'ites had chosen as caliph, Mahommed b. Abdallah b. Hasan, whom they called the Mahdi and the " pure soul," and Mansur had been among those who pledged themselves to him by oath. Not unnaturally, the Alids in Medina were indignant at being supplanted by the Abbasids, and Mansur's chief concern was to get Mahommed into his power. Immediately after his occupying the throne, he named Ziyad b. Obaidallah governor of Medina, with orders to lay hands on Mahommed and his brother Ibrahim, who, warned betimes, took refuge in flight. In 758 Mansur, informed that a revolt was in preparation, came himself to Medina and ordered Abdallah to tell him where his sons were. As he could not or would not tell, he together with all his brothers and some other relatives were seized and transported to Irak, where Abdallah and bis brother Ali were beheaded and the others imprisoned. Notwithstanding all these precautions, a vast conspiracy was formed. On the same day Mahommed was to raise the standard of revolt in Medina, Ibrahim in Basra. But the Alids, though not devoid of personal courage, never excelled in politics or in tactics. In A.D. 762 Mahdmmed took Medina and had himself proclaimed caliph. The governor of Kufa, 'Isa b. Musa, received orders to march against him, entered Arabia, and captured Medina, which, fortified by Mahommed by the same means as the Prophet had employed against the besieging Meccans, could not hold out against the well-trained Khorasanians. Mahommed was defeated and slain. His head was cut off and sent to Mansur. When on the point of death, Mahommed gave the famous sword of the Prophet called Dhu'l-Fiqar to a merchant to whom he owed 400 dinars. It came later into the possession of Harun al-Rashid. In the meanwhile Ibrahim had not only gained possession of Basra, Ahwaz and Pars, but had even occupied Wasit. The empire of the Abbasids was in great jeopardy. For fifty days Mansur stayed in his room, neither changing his clothes nor allowing himself a moment's repose. The greater part of his troops were in Rei with his son al-Mahdi, who had conquered Tabaristan, in Africa, with Mahommed b. Ash'ath, and in Arabia with 'Isa b. Musa. Had Ibrahim marched at once against Kufa he might have crushed Mansur, but he let slip the opportunity. A terrible conflict took place at Ba-Khamra, 48 m. from Kufa. I.Iomaid b. Qahtaba, the commander o_f Mansur's army, was defeated, only a small division under 'Isa b. Musa holding its ground. At that moment Salm, the son of the famous Qotaiba b. Moslim, came to the rescue by attacking the rear of Ibrahim. Homaid rallied his troops, and Ibrahim was overpowered. At last he fell, pierced by an arrow, and, in spite of the desperate efforts of his followers, his body remained in the hands of the enemy. His head.was cut off and brought to Mansur. Mansur could now give his mind to the founding of the new capital. When the tumult of the Rawendis took place he saw clearly that his personal safety was not assured in Hashimiya,1 where a riot of the populace could be very dangerous, and his troops were continually exposed to the perverting influence of the fickle and disloyal citizens of Kufa. He had just made choice of the admirable site of the old market-town of Bagdad when the tidings came of the rising of Mahommed in Medina. In those days he saw that he had been very imprudent to denude himself of troops, and decided to keep henceforth always with him a body of 30,000 soldiers. So Bagdad, or properly " the round city " of Mansur, on the western bank of the Tigris, was built as the capital. Strictly it was a huge citadel, in the centre of which was the palace of the caliph and the great mosque. But around this nucleus there soon grew up the great metropolis which was to be the centre of the civilized world as long as the Caliphate lasted.2 The building lasted three years and. was completed in the year 149 (A.D. 766). That year is really the beginning of the new era. " The Omayyads," says the Spanish writer Ibn Hazm, " were an Arabic dynasty; they had no fortified residence, nor citadel; each of them dwelt in his villa, where he lived before becoming caliph; they did not desire that the Moslems should speak to them as slaves to their master, nor kiss the ground before them or their feet; they only gave their care to the appointment of able governors in the provinces of the empire. The Abbasids, on the contrary, were a Persian dynasty, under which the Arab tribal system, as regulated by Omar, fell to pieces; the Persians of Khorasan were the real rulers, and the government became despotic as in the days of Chrosroes." The reign of Abu'l-Abbas and the first part of that of Mansur had been almost a continuation of the former period. But now his equals in birth and rank, the Omayyads and the Alids, had been crushed; the principal actors in the great struggle, the leaders of the propaganda and Abu Moslim were out of the way; the caliph stood far above all his subjects; and his only possible an- tagonists were the members of his own family. 'Isa b. Musa had been designated, as we have seen, by Abu'l- Abbas as successor to Mansur. The latter having vainly tried to compel 'Isa to renounce his right of succession, in favour of Mansur's son Mahommed al-Mahdi, produced false witnesses who swore that he had done so. However unwillingly, 'Isa was obliged at last to yield, but it was understood that, in case of Mahommcd's death, the succession should return to 'Isa. One of the false witnesses was, it is asserted, Khalid b. Barmak, the head of that celebrated family the Barmecides (g.v.), which played so important a part in the reign of Harun al-Rashid. This Khalid, who was descended from an old sacerdotal family in Balkh, and had been one of the trusty supporters of Abu Moslim, Mansur appointed as minister of finance. A son of Mahommed the Alid had escaped to India, where, 'This Hashimiya near Kufa is not to be confused with that founded by Abu'l-Abbas near Anbar. 1 Cf. G. le Strange, Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate (Oxford, 1900). CALIPHATE with the connivance of the governor Omar b. Hafs Hazarmcrd, he had found refuge with an Indian king. Mansur discovered his abode, and caused him to be killed. His infant son was sent Medina and delivered to his family. Omar Hazarmerd lost his government and received a command in Africa, where he died in 770. In A.H. 158 (A.D. 775) Mansur undertook a pilgrimage to a, but succumbed to dysentery at the last station on the route. He was about sixty-five years of age, and had reigned for twenty-two years. He was buried at Mecca. He was a man of rare energy and strength of mind. His ambition was boundless and no means, however perfidious, were despised by him. But he was a great statesman and knew how to choose able officers for all places. He was thrifty and anxious to leave to his son a full treasury. He seems to have cherished the ideal that this son, called Mohommed b. Abdallah, after the Prophet, should fulfil the promises of peace and happiness that had been tendered to the believers, and therefore to have called him al-Mahdi. For that purpose it was necessary that he should have the means not only to meet all st.iU- expenses, but also to be bounteous. But from the report of the historian Haitham b. 'Adi l about the last discourse which father and son had together, we gather that the former had misgivings in regard to the fulfilment of his wishes. Khalid b. Barmak took the greatest care of the revenues, but contrived at the same time to consult his own interests. Mansur discovered this in the same year in which he died, and threatened him with death unless he should pay to the treasury three millions of dirhems within three days. Khalid already had so many friends that the sum was brought together with the exception of 30,000 dirhems. At that moment tidings came about a rising in the province of Mosul, and a friend of Khalid said to the caliph that Khalid was the only man capable of putting it down. Thereupon Mansur overlooked the deficiency and gave Khalid the government of Mosul. " And," said a citizen of that town, " we had such an awe and reverence for Khalid, that he appeased the disorders, almost without punishing anybody." 3. Reign of Mahdi. — As soon as Mansur was dead, Rabi'.his client and chamberlain, induced all the princes and generals who accompanied the caliph, to take the oath of allegiance to his son Mahommed al-Mahdi, who was then at Bagdad. Isa b. Musa hesitated, but was compelled to give in. In 776 Mahdi constrained him for a large bribe to renounce his right of succession in favour of his sons, Musa and Harun. Mansur wrote in his testament to his son that he had brought together so much money that, even if no revenue should come in for ten years, it would suffice for all the wants of the state. Mahdi, therefore, could afford to be munificent, and in order to make his accession doubly welcome to his subjects, he began by granting a general amnesty to political prisoners. Among these was a certain Ya'qOb b. Da'ud, who, having insinuated himself into the confidence of the caliph, especially by discovering the hiding places of certain Alids, was afterwards (in 778) made prime minister. The provincial governors in whom his father had placed confidence, Mahdi superseded by creatures of his own. In Khorasan many people were discontented. The promises made to them during the war against the Omayyads had not been fulfilled, and the new Mahdi did not answer at all to their ideal. A revolt in 1 60 under the leadership of a certain Yusuf b. Ibrahim, surnamed al-Barm, was suppressed by Yazid b. Mazyad, who, after a desperate struggle, defeated Yusuf, took him prisoner and brought him in triumph to Bagdad, where he with several of his officers was killed and crucified. In the following year, Mahdi was menaced by a far more dangerous revolt, led by a sectary, known generally as Mokanna (q.t.), or " the veiled one," because he always appeared in public wearing a mask. He took up his abode in the Transoxianian province of Kish and Nakhshab, where he gathered around him a great number of adherents. After some successes, the pretender was ultimately cornered at the castle of Sanam near Kish, and took poison together with all the members of his family. His head was cut off and sent to Mahdi in the year 163. 1 Tabari iii. p. 443 seq. Mahdi had been scarcely a year on the throne when he resohvd to accomplish the pilgrimage to Mecca. The chroniclers relate that on this occasion for the first time camels loaded with ice for the use of the caliph came to Mecca. Immediately on his arrival in the Holy City he applied himself, at the request of the inhabi- tants, to the renewal of the curtains which covered the exterior walls of the Ka'ba. For a very long time no care had been taken to remove the old covering when a new one was put on; and the accumulated weight caused uneasiness respecting the stability of the walls. Mahdi caused the house to be entirely stripped and anointed with perfumes, and covered the walls again with a single cloth of great richness. The temple itself was enlarged and restored. On this occasion he distributed considerable largesses among the Meccans. From Mecca Mahdi went to Medina, \vht-re he caused the mosque to be enlarged, and where a similar distribu- tion of gifts took place. During his stay in that city he formed for himself a guard of honour, composed of 500 descendants of the Ansar,2 to whom he assigned a quarter in Bagdad, named after them the Qatl'a (Fief) of the Ansar. Struck by the difficulties of every kind which had to be encountered by poor pilgrims to Mecca from Bagdad and its neighbourhood, he ordered Yaqtln, his freedman, to renew the milestones, to repair the old reservoirs, and to dig wells and construct cisterns at every station of the road where they were missing. He also had new inns built and decayed ones repaired. Yaqtln remained inspector of the road till 767. During the reign of Mansur the annual raids against the Byzantines had taken place almost without intermission, but the only feat of importance had been the conquest of Laodicea, called "the burnt" (^ KaraKiKavnivrj), by Ma'yuf b. Yahya in the year 770. At first the armies of Mahdi were not successful. The Greeks even conquered Marash (Germanicia) and annihilated the Moslem army sent from Dabiq. In 778, however, Hasan b. Qah^aba made a victorious raid as far as Adhruliya (Dorylaeum) ; it was on his proposition that Mahdi resolved on building the frontier town called Hadath (Adata), which became an outpost. In 779 the caliph decided on leading his army in person. He assembled his army in the plains of Baradan north of Bagdad and began his march in the early spring of 780, taking with him his second son Harun, and leaving his elder son Musa as his lieutenant in Bagdad. Traversing Mesopotamia and Syria, he entered Cilicia. and established himself on the banks of the Jihan (Pyramus). Thence he despatched an expeditionary force, nomi- nally under the command of Harun, but in reality under that of his tutor, the Barmecide Yahya b. Khalid. Harun captured the fortress Samalu after a siege of thirty -eight days, the inhabi- tants surrendering on condition that they should not be killed or separated from one another. The caliph kept faith with them, and settled them in Bagdad, where they built a monastery called after their native place. In consequence of this feat, Mahdi made Harun governor of the whole western part of the empire, including Azerbaijan and Armenia. Two years later war broke out afresh between the Moslems and the Greeks. Leo IV., the East Roman emperor, had recently died, leaving the crown to Constan- tino VI. This prince being only ten years old, his mother Irene acted as regent and assumed the title Augusta. By her orders an army of 90,000 men, under the command of Michael Lachano- drakon, entered Asia Minor. The Moslems, on their side, invaded Cilicia under the orders of Abdalkabir, who, being afraid of encountering the enemy, retired with his troops. Irritated by this failure, the caliph in 781 sent Harun, accompanied by his chamberlain Rabl', with an army of nearly 100,000 men, with orders to carry the war to the very gates of Constantinople. The patrician Nicetas, count of Opsikion, who sought to oppose his march, was defeated by Harfln's general, Yazid b. Mazyad, and put to flight. Harun then marched against Nicomedia, where he vanquished the domesticus, the chief commander of the Greek forces, and pitched his camp on the shores of the Bosporus. Irene took alarm, sued for peace, and obtained a truce for three years, but only on the humiliating terms of paying an annual 'The first citizens of Medina who embraced Islam were called Ansar ("helpers "). 44 CALIPHATE tribute of 90,000 denarii, and supplying the Moslems with guides and markets on their way home. This brilliant success so increased Mahdi's affection for Harun that he appointed him successor-designate after Musa and named him al-Rashid (" the follower of the right cause "). Three years later, he resolved even to give to him the precedence in the succession instead of Musa, yielding to the importunity of Khaizoran, the mother of the two princes, and to his own predilection. It was necessary first to obtain from Musa a renunciation of his rights; and for that purpose he was recalled from Jorjan, where he was engaged on an expedition against the rebels of Tabaristan. Musa, informed of his father's intentions, refused to obey this order, and Mahdi determined to march in person against him. But, after his arrival at Masabadhan, a place in Jabal (Media, the later Persian Irak), he died suddenly, at the age of only forty- three. Some attribute his death to an accident met with in hunting; others believe him to have been poisoned. Some European scholars have suspected Musa of having been concerned in it, but of this we have no proof whatever. The reign of Mahdi was a time of great prosperity. Much was done for the organization of the huge empire; agriculture and commerce flourished; the revenues were increasing, whilst the people fared well. The power of the state was acknowledged even in the far east: the emperor of China, the king of Tibet, and many Indian princes concluded treaties with the caliph. He was an ardent champion of the orthodox faith, repudiating all the extravagant doctrine preached by the Abbasid missionaries and formerly professed by his father. In particular he persecuted mercilessly the Manichaeans and all kinds of freethinkers. 4. Reign of Hddi. — On the death of Mahdi, Harun, following the advice of Yahya b. Khalid, sent the insignia of the Caliphate, with letters of condolence and congratulation, to Musa in Jorjan, and brought the army which had accompanied Mahdi peacefully back from Media to Bagdad. Musa returned in all haste to the capital, and assumed the title of al-Hadi ("he who directs"). The accession of a new caliph doubtless appeared to the partisans of the house of Ali a favourable opportunity for a rising. Hosain b. Ali b. Hasan III. raised an insurrection at Medina with the support of numerous adherents, and proclaimed himself caliph. Thence he went to Mecca, where on the promise of freedom many slaves flocked to him, and many pilgrims also acknowledged him. Suleiman b. Mansur, the caliph's representative in the pilgrimage of that year, was entrusted with the command against him. Hosain was attacked at Fakh, 3 m. from Mecca, and perished in the combat with many other Alids. His maternal uncle, Idris b. Abdallah, a brother of Mahommed and Ibrahim, the rivals of Mansur, succeeded in escaping, and fled to Egypt, whence by the help of the postmaster, himself a secret partisan of the Shi'ites, he passed into West Africa, where at a later period his son founded the Idrisite dynasty in Fez (see MOROCCO). Hadi, who had never been able to forget that he had narrowly escaped being supplanted by his brother, formed a plan for excluding him from the Caliphate and transmitting the succes- sion to his own son Ja'far. To this he obtained the assent of his ministers and the principal chiefs of his army, with the exception of Yahya b. Khalid, Harun's former tutor, who showed such firmness and boldness that Hadi cast him into prison and resolved on his death. Some historians say that he had already given orders for his execution, when he himself was killed (September I4th, 786) by bis mother Khaizoran, who had systematically and successfully intrigued against him with the object of gaining the real power for herself. Hadi, indignant at the fact that she was generally regarded as the real source of authority, had attempted to poison her, and Khaizoran, hoping to find a more submissive instrument of her will in her second and favourite son, caused Had! to be smothered with cushions by two young slaves whom she had presented to him. She herself died three years later. 5. Reign of Harun al-Rashid. — We have now reached the most celebrated name among the Arabian caliphs, celebrated not only in the East, but in the West as well, where the stories of the Thousand and One Nights have made us familiar with that world which the narrators represent in such brilliant colours. Harun ascended the throne without opposition. His first act was tc choose as prime minister his former tutor, the faithful Yahya b. Khalid, and to confide important posts to the two sons of Yahya, Fadl and Ja'far, of whom the former was bis own foster-brother, the latter his intimate friend. The Barmecide family were endowed in the highest degree with those qualities of generosity and liberality which the Arabs prized so highly, and the chronicles never weary in their oraises. Loaded with all the burdens of government, Yahya brought the most distinguished abilities to the exercise of his offics. He put the frontiers in a good state of defence; he filled the public treasury, and carried the splendour of the throne to the highest point. His sons, especially Fadl, were worthy of their father. Although the administration of Harun's states was committed to skilful hands, yet the first years of his long reign were not free from troubles. Towards the year 176 (A.D. 792-793) amanof the house of Ah", named Yahya b. Abdallah, another brother of Mahommed and Ibrahim, who had taken refuge in the land of Dailam on the south-western shores of the Caspian Sea, succeeded in forming a powerful party, and publicly claimed the Caliphate. Harun immediately sent against him an army of 50,000 men, under the command of Fadl, whom he made governor of all the Caspian provinces. Reluctant, however, to fight against a descendant of the Prophet, Fadl first attempted to induce him to submit by promising him safety and a brilliant position at the court of Bagdad. Yahya accepted the proposal, but required that the caliph should send him letters of pardon countersigned by the highest legal authorities and the principal personages of the empire. Harun consented and Yahya went to Bagdad, where he met with a splendid reception. At the end of some months, however, he was calumniously accused of conspiracy, and the caliph, seizing the opportunity of ridding himself of a possible rival, threw him into prison, where he died, according to the majority of the historians, of starvation. Others say that Ja'far b. Yahya b. Khalid, to whose care he had been entrusted, suffered him to escape, and that this was the real cause of Harun's anger against the Barmecides (q.v.). Dreading fresh insurrections of the Alids, Harun secured the person of another descendant of Ali, Musa b. Ja'far, surnamed al-Kazim, who enjoyed great consideration at Medina, and had already been arrested and released again by Mahdi. The unfortunate man was brought by the caliph himself to Bagdad, and there died, apparently by poison. Meanwhile Harun did not forget the hereditary enemy of Islam. In the first year of his reign all the strong places of Kinnesrin and Mesopotamia were formed into a special pro- vince, which received the name of al-' Awasim (" the defending for- tresses "), with Manbij (Hierapolis) as its capital. The building of the fortress of IJadath having been completed, Harun com- mitted to Faraj the Turk the task of rebuilding and fortifying the city of Tarsus. Thanks to these and similar measures, the Mos- lem armies were able to advance boldly into Asia Minor. Almost every year successful raids were made, in the year 797 under the command of the caliph himself, so that Irene was compelled to sue for peace. An attack by the Khazars called the caliph's attention from his successes in Asia Minor. This people had made an irruption into Armenia, and their attack had been so sudden that the Moslems and Christians were unable to defend themselves, and 100,000 had been reduced to captivity. Two valiant generals, Khozaima b. Khazlm and Yazld b. Mazyad, marched against the Khazars and drove them out of Armenia. In the midst of the cares of war, Harun was assiduous in his religious duties, and few years passed without his making the pilgrimage. Having determined to fix the order of succession in so formal a manner as to take away all pretext for future con- tentions, he executed a deed by which he appointed his eldest son Mahommed his immediate heir, and after him the second, Abdallah, and after Abdallah the third, Qasim. Mahommed received the surname of al-Amin (" the Sure "), Abdallah that of al-Ma'miin (" he in whom men trust "), and Qasim that of al-Mo'tamin Ullah (" he who trusts in God "). Harun further CALIPHATE 45 stipulated th;it Mumun should have as his share during the life- time of his brother the government of the eastern part of the empire. Each of the parties auu-erned swore to observe faithfully every part of this deed, which the caliph caused to be hung up in the Ka'ba. imagining that it would be thus guaranteed against all violation on the part of men, a precaution which was to be rendered vain by the perfidy of Amln. It was in the beginning of the following year, at the very moment when the Barmecides thought their position most secure, that HdrQn brought sudden ruin upon them. The causes of their disgrace have been differently stated by the annalists (see BARMECIDES). The principal cause appears to have been that they abused the sovereign power which they exercised. Not a few were jealous of their greatness and sought for opportunities of instilling distrust against them into the mind of Harun, and of making him feel that he was caliph only in name. The secret dissatisfaction thus aroused was increased, according to some apparently well-informed authorities, by the releasing of the Alid YahyS b. Abdallah, already mentioned. Finally Harun resolved on their destruction, and Ja'far b. YahyS, who had just taken leave of him after a day's hunting, was arrested, taken to the castle of Harun. and beheaded. The following day, his father Yahya, his brother Fadl, and all the other Barmecides were arrested and imprisoned; all their property was confiscated. The only Barmecide who remained unmolested with his family was Mahommed the brother of Y'ahya, who had been the cham- berlain of the caliph till 795, when Facjl b. Rabi' got his place. This latter had henceforward the greatest influence at court. In the same year a revolution at Constantinople overthrew the empress Irene. The new emperor Nicephorus, thinking himself strong enough to refuse the payment of tribute, wrote an insulting letter to Harun, who contented himself with replying: " Thou shall not hear, but see, my answer." He entered Asia Minor and took Hcraclca, plundering and burning along his whole line of march, till Nicephorus, in alarm, sued for peace. Scarcely had the caliph returned into winter quarters when Nicephorus broke the treaty. When the news came to Rakka, where Harun was residing, not one of the ministers ventured to tell him, until at last a poet introduced it in a poem which pleased the monarch. Notwithstanding the rigour of the season, Harun retraced his steps, and Nicephorus was compelled to observe his engagements. In 805 the first great ransoming of Moslem prisoners took place on the banks of the little river Lamus in Cilicia. But Nicephorus, profiting by serious disturbances in Khorasan, broke the treaty again, and overran the country as far as Anazarba and Kanisat as-sauda (" the black church ") on the frontier, where he took many prisoners, who were, however, recovered by the garrison of Mopsuestia. Thus Harun was obliged to take the field again. He entered Asia Minor with an army of 135,000 regulars, beside volunteers and camp followers. Heraclea was taken, together with many other places, and Tyana was made a military station. At the same time his admiral, Homaid b. Ma'yuf, conquered Cyprus, which had broken the treaty, and took 16,000 of its people captive. Nicephorus was now so completely beaten that he was compelled to submit to very harsh conditions. In the year 808 the second ransoming between the Moslems and the Greeks took place near the river Lamus. The disturbances in Khorasan were caused by the malversa- tions of the governor of that province, Ali b. 'Isa b. Mahan. The caliph went in person to Merv, in order to judge of the reality of the complaints which had reached him. Ali b. 'Isa hastened to meet the caliph on his arrival at Rai (Rhagac), near the modern Teheran, with a great quantity of costly presents, which he distributed with such profusion among the princes and courtiers that no one was anxious to accuse him. Harun confirmed him in his post, and, after having received the chiefs of Tabaristan who came to tender their submission, returned through Bagdad to Rakka on the Euphrates, which city was his habitual residence. In the following year Rafi' b. Laith, a grandson of Nasr b. Sayyar, raised the standard of revolt in Samarkand, and, at the head of a numerous army, defeated the son of Ali b. 'Isa. Thereupon Ali fled from Balkh, leaving the treasury, which was plundered by the populace after his departure. The caliph on learning that the revolt was due to All's tyranny, sent llarihama b. A'yan with stringent orders to seize Ali and confiscate his possessions. This order was carried out, and it is recorded that 1 500 camels were required to transport the confiscated treasures. The caliph's hope that Rafi' would submit on condition of receiving a free pardon was not fulfilled, and he resolved to set out himself to Khorasan, taking with him his second son Mamun. On the journey he was attacked by an internal malady, which carried him off, ten months after his departure from Bagdad, A.H. 193 (March 809), just on his arrival at the city of TQs. HSrfin was only forty-five years of age. He was far from having the high qualifications of his grandfather Mansur; indeed he did not even possess the qualities of his father and his brother. When the latter asked him to renounce his right of succession, he was willing to consent, saying that a quiet life with his beloved wife, the princess Zobaida, was his highest wish, but he obeyed his mother and Yahya b. Khalid. As long as the Barmecides were in office, he acted only on their direction. After their disgrace he was led into many impolitic actions by his violent and often cruel propensities. But the empire was, especially in the earlier part of his reign, in a very prosperous state, and was respected widely by foreign powers. Embassies passed between Charlemagne and Harun in the years 180 (A.D. 797) and 184 (A.D. 801), by which the former obtained facilities for the pilgrims to the Holy Land, the latter probably concessions for the trade on the Mediterranean ports. The ambassadors brought presents with them; on one of these occasions the first elephant reached the land of the Franks. Under the reign of Harun, Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, the governor of Africa, succeeded in making himself independent of the central government, on condition of paying a fixed annual tribute to his suzerain the caliph. This was, if we do not take Spain into the account, the first instance of dismemberment, later to be followed by many others. In the days of this caliph the first paper factories were founded in Bagdad. 6. Reign of Amln. — On the death of Harun his minister, Fatfl b. Rabi', with the view of gaining the new caliph's con- fidence, hastened to call together all the troops of the late caliph and to lead them back to Bagdad, in order to place them in the hands of the new sovereign, Amln. He even, in direct violation of Harun's will, led back the corps which was intended to occupy Khorasan under the authority of Mamun. Aware, however, that in thus acting he was making Mamun his irreconcilable enemy, he persuaded Amln to exclude Mamun from the succes- sion. Mamun, on receiving his brother's invitation to go to Bagdad, was greatly perplexed; but his tutor and later vizier, Fatfl b. Sahl, a Zoroastrian of great influence, who in 806 had adopted Islam, reanimated his courage, and pointed out to him that certain death awaited him at Bagdad. Mamun resolved to hold out, and found pretexts for remaining in Khorasan. Amln, in anger, caused the will of his father, which, as we have seen, was preserved in the Ka'ba, to be destroyed, declared on his own authority that Mamun 's rights of succession were forfeited, and caused the army to swear allegiance to his own son Musa, a child of five, on whom he bestowed the title of an-Natiq bll-Haqq (" he who speaks according to truth "), A.H. 194 (A.D. 800-810). On hearing the news, Mamun, strong in the rightful- ness of his claim, retaliated by suppressing the caliph's name in all public acts. Amln immediately despatched to Khorasan an army of 40,000 under the command of Ali b. "Isa, who had re- gained his former influence, and told the caliph that, at his coming to Khorasan, all the leading men would come over to his side. Zobaida, the mother of the caliph, entreated Ali to treat Mamun kindly when he should have made him captive. It is said that Fa(Jl b. Sahl had, through a secret agent, induced Fatfl b. Rabi' to select Ali, knowing that the dislike felt towards him by the Khorasanians would double their strength in fighting against him. Mamun, on his side, sent in all haste an army of less than 4000 men of his faithful Khorasanians, and entrusted CALIPHATE their command to Tahir b. Hosain, who displayed remarkable abilities in the war that ensued. The two armies met under the walls of Rai (Shaaban 195, May 811). By a bold attack, in the manner of the Kharijites of yore, Tahir penetrated into the centre of the hostile army and killed Ali. The frightened army fled, leaving the camp with all its treasures to Tahir, who from that day was named " the man with the two right hands." A courier was despatched immediately to Merv, who performed the journey, a distance of about 750 miles, in three days. On the very day of his arrival, Harthama b. A'yan had left Merv with reinforcements. Mamun now no longer hesitated to take the title of caliph. When the news of Ali's defeat came to Bagdad, Amm sent Abdarrahman b. Jabala to Hamadan with 20,000 men. Tahir defeated him, forced Hamadan to surrender, and occupied all the strong places in Jabal (Media). The year after, Amm placed in the field two new armies commanded respectively by Ahmad b. Mazyad and Abdallah b. Homaid b. Qahtaba. The skilful Tahir succeeded in creating divisions among the troops of his adversaries, and obtained possession, without striking a blow, of the city of Holwan, an advantage which opened the way to the very gates of Bagdad. He was here reinforced by troops sent from Khorasan under the command of Harthama b. A'yan, who was appointed leader of the war against Amm, with orders to send Tahir to Ahwaz. Tahir continued his victorious march, conquered Ahwaz, took Wasit and Madain, and pitched his camp near one of the gates of the capital, where he was rejoined by Harthama. One after the other the provinces fell away from Amm, and he soon found himself in possession of Bagdad alone. The city, though blockaded on every side, made a desperate defence for nearly two years. Ultimately the eastern part of the city fell into the hands of Tahir, and Amm, deserted by his followers, was compelled to surrender. He resolved to treat with Harthama, as he was averse to Tahir; but this step caused his ruin. Tahir succeeded in intercepting him on his way to Har- thama, and immediately ordered him to be put to death. His head was sent to Mamun (September 813). It was presented to him by his vizier, Fadl b. Sahl, surnamcd Dhu'l-Riyasatain, or " the man with two governments," because his master had committed to him both the ministry of war and the general administration. Mamun hid his joy beneath a feigned display of sorrow. Amln was only twenty-eight years old. As a ruler he was wholly incompetent. He hardly comprehended the importance of the affairs with which he was called upon to deal. He acted invariably on the advice of those who for the time had his confidence, and occupied himself mainly with the affairs of his harem, with polo, fishing, wine and music. The five years of his reign were disastrous to the empire, and in particular to Bagdad which never entirely recovered its old splendour. 7. Reign of Mamun. — On the day following the death of Amm Tahir caused Mamun to be proclaimed at Bagdad, and promised in his name a general amnesty. The accession of this prince appeared likely to restore to the empire the order necessary for its prosperity. It was not so, however. The reign of Mamun — that reign in which art, science and letters, under the patronage of the caliph, threw so brilliant a lustre — had a very stormy beginning. Mamun was in no haste to remove to Bagdad, but continued to reside at Merv. In his gratitude to Fadl b. Sahl, to whose service he owed his success, he not only chose him as prime minister of the empire, but also named his brother, Hasan b. Sahl, governor of Media, Pars, Ahwaz, Arabia and Irak. The two generals to whom he owed still more were not treated as they deserved. Harthama was ordered to return to Khorasan; Tahir was made governor of Mesopotamia and Syria, with the task of subduing Nasr b. Shabath, who with numerous adherents refused submission to the caliph. The Alids seized on the eleva- tion of Mamun as a pretext for fresh revolts. At Kufa a certain Ibn Tabitaba placed an army in the field under Abu'l-Saraya, who had been a captain in the army of Harthama. An army sent by Hasan b. Sahl was defeated, and Abu'l-Saraya, no longer content to play a second part, poisoned his chief, Ibn Taba^aba, and put in his place another of the family of Ali, Mahommed b. Mahommed, whom, on account of his extreme youth, he hoped to govern at his will. Abu'1-Saraya's success continued, and several cities of Irak — Basra, Wasit and Madain — fell into his hands. Mecca, Medina and Yemen also were mastered by the Alids, who committed all kinds of atrocities and sacrilege. Abu'l-Saraya, who even struck money in Kufa, began to menace the capital, when Hasan b. Sahl hastily sent a messenger to Harthama b. A'yan, who was already at Holwan on his way back to Merv, entreating him to come to his aid. Harthama, who was deeply offended by his dismissal, refused at first, but at last consented, and at once checked the tide of disaster. The troops of the Alids were everywhere driven back, and the whole of Irak fill again into the hands of the Abbasids. Kufa opened its gates; Basra was taken by assault. Abu'l-Saraya and Mahommed b. Mahommed fled to Mesopotamia, but were made prisoners. The former was decapitated, the latter was sent to Khorasan, the revolt in Arabia was quickly suppressed, and peace seemed within reach. This, however, was by no means the case. The disorder of civil war had caused a multitude of robbers and vagabonds to emerge from the purlieus of Bagdad. These ruffians proceeded to treat the capital as a conquered city, and it became necessary for all good citizens to organize them- selves into a regular militia. Harthama, having vanquished Abu'l-Saraya, did not go to Hasan b. Sahl, but proceeded towards Merv with the purpose of telling Mamun that the state of affairs was not as Fadl b. Sahl represented it to him, and urging him to come to Bagdad, where his presence was necessary. Fadl, informed of his intentions, filled the caliph's mind with distrust against the old general, so that when Harthama arrived Mamun had him cast into prison, where he died shortly after- wards. When the tidings of his disgrace came to Bagdad, the people expelled the lieutenant of Hasan b. Sahl, called by them the Majuzl (" the Zoroastrian "), who had chosen Madain for his residence, and put at their head Mansur, a son of Mahdi, who refused to assume the title of caliph, but consented to be Mamun's vicegerent instead of Hasan b. Sahl. Meanwhile, at Merv, Mamun was adopting a decision which fell like a thunderbolt on the Abbasids. In A.H. 201 (A.D. 817), under pretence of putting an end to the continual revolts of the partisans of Ali, and acting on the advice of his prime minister Fadl, he publicly designated as his successor in the Caliphate Ali ar-Rida, a son of that Musa al-Kazim who perished in the prison of Mahdi, a direct descendant of Hosain, the son of Ali, and proscribed black, the colour of the Abbasids, in favour of that of the house of Ali, green. This step was well calculated to delight the followers of Ali, but it could not fail to exasperate the Abbasids and their partisans. The people of Bagdad refused to take the oath to Ali b. Musa, declared Mamun deposed, and elected his uncle, Ibrahim, son of Mahdi, to the Caliphate.1 It was only indirectly that the news reached the caliph, who then saw that Fadl had been treating him as a puppet. His anger was great, but he kept it carefully to himself. Fadl was one day found murdered, and Ali b. Musa died suddenly. The historians bring no open accusation against Mamun, but it seems clear that the opportune removal of these men was not due to chance. Mamun affected the profoundest grief, and, in order to disarm suspicion, appointed as his prime minister the brother of Facll, Hasan b. Sahl, whose daughter Buran he afterwards married. Soon after the news came to him that Hasan b. Sahl had become insane. Mamun appointed an officer to act as his lieutenant, and wrote that he was coming to Bagdad in a short time. From that moment the pseudo-caliph Ibrahim found himself deserted, and was obliged to seek safety in concealment. His precarious reign had, however, lasted nearly two years. Mamun had found out also that the general uneasiness was largely due to his treat- ment of Harthama and Tahir, the latter having been put in a rebellious country without the men and the money to maintain his authority. The caliph therefore wrote to Tahir to meet him at Nahrawan, where he was received with the greatest honour. 1 On this event, see a remarkable essay by Barbier de Meynard in the Journal Asiatique for March-April, 1869. CALIPHATE 47 Having taken all precautions, Mamun now made his solemn entry 'nt° Bagdad, but, to show that he came as a m;isu-r. In- still displayed for several days the green colours, though at last, at the request of Tahir, he consented to resume the black. From this time, A.H. -'04 (August 819), the real reign of Mamun began, freed as he now was from the tutelage of Fadl. When welcoming Tahir, Mamun bade him ask for any reward he might desire, jahir, fearing lest the caliph, not being able to endure the sight of the murderer of his brother, should change his mind towards him, contrived to get himself appointed governor of Khorasan. Like most of the grept Moslem generals, Tahir, it is said, had conceived the project of creating an inde- pendent kingdom for himself. His death, A.H. 207 (A.D. 822), prevented its realization; but as his descendants succeeded him one after the other in the post of governor, he may be said in reality to have founded a dynasty in Khorasan. His son Abdallah b. Tahir was a special favourite of Mamun. He brought Nasr b. Shabath to subjection in Mesopotamia, and overcame by great ability a very dangerous rebellion in Egypt. When he returned thence, the caliph gave him the choice between the government of Khorasan and that of the northern provinces, where he would have to combat Babak the Khorramite. Abdallah chose the former (see below, § 8). The pseudo-caliph, Ibrahim, who, since Mamun's entry into Bagdad, had led a wandering life, was eventually arrested. But Mamun generously pardoned him, as well as Fadl b. Rabi", the chief promoter of the terrible civil war which had so lately shaken the empire. After that time, Ibrahim lived peacefully at the court, cultivating the arts of singing and music. Tranquillity being now everywhere re-established, Mamun gave himself up to science and literature. He caused works on mathematics, astronomy, medicine and philosophy to be trans- lated from the Greek, and founded in Bagdad a kind of academy, called the "House of Science," with a library and an observatory. It was also by his orders that two learned mathematicians undertook the measurement of a degree of the earth's circum- ference. Mamun interested himself too in questions of religious dogma. He had embraced the Motazilite doctrine about free will and predestination, and was in particular shocked at the opinion which had spread among the Moslem doctors that the Koran was the uncreated word of God. In the year 212 (A.D. 827) he published an edict by which the Motazilite (Mu'tazilitc) doctrine was declared to be the religion of the state, the orthodox faith condemned as heretical. At the same time he ordered all his subjects to honour Ali as the best creature of God after the Prophet, and forbade the praise of Moawiya. In A.H. 218 (A.D. 833) a new edict appeared by which all judges and doctors were summoned to renounce the error of the uncreated word of God. Several distinguished doctors, and, among others, the celebrated Ahmad b. Hanbal (?.».), founder of one of the four orthodox Moslem schools, were obliged to appear before an inquisitorial tribunal; and as they persisted in their belief respecting the Koran, they were thrown into prison. Mamun, being at Tarsus, received from the governor of Bagdad the report of the tribunal, and ordered that the culprits should be sent off to him. Happily for these unfortunate doctors, they had scarcely reached Adana, when news of the caliph's death arrived and they were brought back to Bagdad. The two successors of Mamun maintained the edicts — Ahmad b. Hanbal, who obstinately refused to yield, was flogged in the year 834 — but it seems that Motasim did not himself take much interest in the question, which perhaps he hardly understood, and that the prosecution of the inquisition by him was due in great part to the charge which was left him in Mamun's will. In the reign of Motawakkil the orthodox faith was restored, never to be assailed again.1 In spite of these manifold activities Mamun did not forget the hereditary enemy of Islam. In the years 830, 831 and 8,32 he made expeditions into Asia Minor with such success that Theo- philus, the Greek emperor, sued for peace, which Mamun 'Cf. W. M. Patton, Ahmed ibn ffanbal and the Mihna (Leiden, 1897); and article MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION. haughtily refused to grant. Accordingly, he decided on marching in the following year against Amorium, and thence to Constanti- nople itself. Having sent before him his son Abbas to make Tyana a strong fortress, he set out for Asia Minor to put himself at the head of the army, but died of a fever brought on by bathing in the chill river, Pedendon, 40 m. from Tarsus, in Rajab 218 (A.D. August 833), at the age of forty -eight. Mamun was a man of rare qualities, and one of the best rulers of the whole dynasty after Mansur. By him the ascendancy of the Persian element over the Arabian was completed. Moreover, he began to attract young Turkish noblemen to his court, an example which was followed on a much larger scale by his successor and led to the supremacy of the Turks at a later period. 8. Reign of Motasim. — Abu Ishak al-Mo'tasim had for a long time been preparing himself for the succession. Every year he had bought Turkish slaves, and had with him in the last expedi- tion of Mamun a bodyguard of 3000. Backed by this force he seems to have persuaded the ailing caliph to designate him as his successor. The chroniclers content themselves with recording that he himself wrote in the name of the caliph to the chief authorities in Bagdad and elsewhere that he was to be the successor. His accession, however, met at first with active opposition in the army, where a powerful party demanded that Abbas should take the place of his father. Abbas, however, publicly renounced all pretension to the Caliphate, and the whole army accepted Motasim, who immediately had the fortifications of Tyana demolished and hastened back to Bagdad, where he made his public entry on the 2oth of September 833. Motasim wanted officers for his bodyguard. Immediately after his coming to Bagdad, he bought all the Turkish slaves living there who had distinguished themselves. Among them were Ashnas, Itakh, Waslf , Slma, all of whom later became men of great influence. The guard was composed of an undisciplined body of soldiers, who, moreover, held in open contempt the religious precepts of Islam. Tired of the excesses committed by these Turks, the people of Bagdad beat or killed as many of them as they could lay hands on, and Motasim, not daring to act with severity against either his guard or the citizens, took the course of quitting the city. Having bought in 834 territories at Samarra, a small place situated a few leagues above Bagdad, he caused a new residence to be built there, whose name, which could be interpreted " Unhappy is he who sees it," was changed by him into Sorra-man-ra'a, " Rejoiced is he who sees it." Leaving the government of the capital in the hands of his son Harun al-Wathiq, he established himself at Samarra in 836. This resolution of Motasim was destined to prove fatal to his dynasty; for it placed the caliphs at the mercy of their prae- torians. In fact, from the time of Wathiq, the Caliphate became the plaything of the Turkish guard, and its decline was continuous. In the time of the civil war the marshlands in Irak between Basra and Wasit had been occupied by a large population of Indians, called yat, or, according to the Arabic pronunciation, Zott, who infested the roads and levied a heavy tribute from the ships ascending and descending the Tigris. From the year 821 onwards Mamun had tried in vain to bring them to submission. When Motasim came back to Bagdad, after the death of his brother, he found the people in great distress, their supply of dates from Basra having been cut off by the Zott, and resolved to put them down with all means. After seven months of vigorous resistance, they at last yielded on condition of safety of life and property. In January 835 the Zott in their national costume and with their own music were conducted on a great number of boats through Bagdad. Thence they were transported to Ainzarba (Anazarba) on the frontier of the Greek empire. Twenty years later they entered Asia Minor, whence in a later period they came into Europe, under the name of Athinganoi (Ziganes) and Egyptians (gipsies).2 A far more difficult task lay before Motasim, the subjection of Babak al-Khorraml in Azerbaijan. Though the name Khorraml is often employed by the Moslem writers to designate such 1 See M. J. de Goeje, Memoire sur les migrations des Ziganes a traven I'Asie (Leiden, 1903); also GIPSIES. 48 CALIPHATE extravagant Moslem sectaries as the Hashimlya,the real KhorramI were not Moslems, but Persian Mazdaqites, or communists. The name KhorramI, or Khorramdlni, " adherent of the pleasant religion," seems to be a nickname. As they bore red colours, they were also called Mohammira, or Redmakers. Their object was to abolish Islam and to restore " the white religion." We find the first mention of them in the year 808, when Harun al-Rashid sent an army against them. During the civil war their power was steadily increasing, and spread not only over Azerbaijan, but also over Media (Jabal) and Khorasan. The numerous efforts of Mamun to put them down had been all in vain, and they were now in alliance with the Byzantine emperor. Therefore, in the year 835, Motasim made Afshin, a Turkish prince who had distinguished himself already in the days of Mamun, governor of Media, with orders to take the lead of the war against Babak. After three years' fighting, Babak was taken prisoner. He was carried to Samarra, led through the city on the back of an elephant, and then delivered to the execu- tioners, who cut off his arms and legs. His head was sent to Khorasan, his body was crucified. For long afterwards the place where this happened bore the name of " Babak's Cross." In the hope of creating a diversion in Babak's favour, Theo- philus in 837 fell upon and laid waste the frontier town of Zibatra. There and in several other places he took a great number of prisoners, whom he mutilated. The news arrived just after that of the capture of Babak, and Motasim swore to take exemplary vengeance. He assembled a formidable army, penetrated into Asia Minor, and took the city of Amorium, where he gained rich plunder. During his return the caliph was informed of a conspiracy in the army in favour of 'Abbas the son of Mamun, of which 'Ojaif b. 'Anbasa was the ringleader. The unfortunate prince was arrested and died soon after in prison. The conspirators were killed, many of them with great cruelty. (For the campaign see Bury in J.H.S., 1909, xxix. pt. i.) Motasim had just returned to Samarra when a serious revolt broke out in Tabaristan, Maziyar, one of the hereditary chiefs of that country, refusing to acknowledge the authority of Abdallah Ibn Tahir, the governor of Khorasan, of which Tabaristan was a province. The revolt was suppressed with great difficulty, and it came out that it was due to the secret instigation of Afshin, who hoped thereby to cause the fall of the Tahirids, and to take their place, with the ulterior object of founding an independent kingdom in the East. Afshin, who stood at that moment in the highest favour of the caliph, was condemned and died in prison. Motasim died a year later, January 842. 9. Reign of Wdthiq. — His son Wathiq, who succeeded, though not in the least to be compared with Mamun, had yet in common with him a thirst for knowledge — perhaps curiosity would be a more appropriate term — which prompted him, as soon as he became caliph, to send the famous astronomer Mahommed b. Musa into Asia Minor to find out all about the Seven Sleepers which he discovered in the neighbourhood of Arabissus,1 and Sallam the Interpreter to explore the situation of the famous wall of Gog and Magog, which he reached at the north-west frontier of China.2 For these and other personal pursuits he raised money by forcing a number of high functionaries to dis- gorge their gains. In so vast an empire the governors and administrators had necessarily enjoyed an almost unrestricted power, and this had enabled them to accumulate wealth. Omar had already compelled them to furnish an account of their riches, and, when he found that they had abused their trust, to relin- quish half to the state. As time went on, nomination to an office was more and more generally considered a step to wealth. During the reign of the Omayyads a few large fortunes were made thus. But with the increasing luxury after Mansur, the thirst for money became universal, and the number of honest officials lessened fast. Confiscation of property had been •See M. J. de Goeje, " De legende der Zevenslapers van Efeze," Versl. en Meded. der K. Akad. v. Wetensch. Afd. Lelierk. 4" Reeks, iii., 1900. * See M. J. de Goeje, " De muur van Gog en Magog," Versl. en Meded. 3" Reeks, v., 1 888. employed with success by Harun al-Rashid after the disgrace of the Barmecides, and occasionally by his successors, but Wathiq was the first to imprison high officials and fine them heavily on the specific charge of peculation. The caliph also shared Mamun's intolerance on the doctrinal question of the uncreated Koran. He carried his zeal to such a point that, on the occasion of an exchange of Greek against Moslem prisoners in 845, he refused to receive those Moslem captives who would not declare their belief that the Koran was created. The orthodox in Bagdad prepared to revolt, but were discovered in time by the governor of the city. The ringleader Ahmad b. Nasr al-Khoza'I was seized and brought to [Samarra, where Wathiq beheaded him in person. The only other event of importance in the reign of Wathiq was a rising of the Arabian tribes in the environs of Medina, which the Turkish general Bogha with difficulty repressed. When he reached Samarra with his prisoners, Wathiq had just died (August 846). That the predominance of the praetorians was already established is clear from the fact that Wathiq gave to two Turkish generals, Ashnas and Itakh respectively, the titular but lucrative supreme govern- ment of all the western and all the eastern provinces. In his days the soldiery at Samarra was increased by a large division of Africans (Maghribls). 10. Reign of Motawakkil. — As Wathiq had appointed no successor the vizier Mahommed Zayyat had cast his eye on his son Mahommed, who was still a child, but the generals Wasif and Itakh, seconded by the upper cadi Ibn abl Da'ud, refused their consent, and offered the supreme power to Wathiq's brother Ja'far, who at his installation adopted the name of al- Motawakkil 'aid 'llah (" he who trusts in God "). The new caliph hated the vizier Zayyat, who had opposed his election, and had him seized and killed with the same atrocious cruelty which the vizier himself had inflicted on others. His possessions, and those of others who had opposed the caliph's election, were confiscated. But the arrogance of Itakh, to whom he owed his Caliphate, became insufferable. So, with the perfidy of his race, the caliph took him off his guard, and had him imprisoned and killed at Bagdad. He was succeeded by Wasif. About this time an impostor named Mahmud b. Faraj had set himself up as a prophet, claiming to be Dhu'l-Qarnain (Alexander the Great) risen from the dead. Asserting that Gabriel brought him revelations, he had contrived to attract twenty-seven followers. The caliph had him flogged, and compelled each of the twenty-seven to give him ten blows on the head with his fist. The " prophet " expired under the blows (850). One of the first acts of Motawakkil was the release of all those who had been imprisoned for refusing to admit the dogma of the created Koran, and the strict order to abstain from any litigation about the Book of God. The upper cadi Ibn abl Da'ud, the leader of the movement against orthodoxy, who had stood in great esteem with Mamun and had fulfilled his high office under the reigns of Motasim and Wathiq, had a stroke of paralysis in the year 848. His son Mahommed was put in his place till 851, when all the members of the family were arrested. They released themselves by paying the enormous sum of 240,000 dinars and 16,000,000 dirhems, which constituted nearly their whole fortune, and were then sent to Bagdad, where father and son died three years later. An orthodox upper cadi was named instead, and the dogma of the created Koran was declared heresy; therewith began a persecution of all the adherents of that doctrine and other Motazilite tenets. Orthodoxy triumphed , never again to lose its place as the state religion. Hand in hand with these reactionary measures came two others, one against Jews and Christians, one against the Shi'ites. The first caliph who imposed humiliating conditions on the Dhimmis, or Cove- nanters, who, on condition of paying a certain not over-heavy tribute, enjoyed the protection of the state and the free exercise of their cult, was Omar II., but this policy was not continued. A proposition by the cadi Abu Yusuf to Harun al-Rashid to renew it had not been adopted. Motawakkil, in 850, formulated an edict by which these sectaries were compelled to wear a distinctive dress and to distinguish their houses by a figure of CALIPHATE 49 the devil nailed to the door, excluding them at the same time from all public employments, and forbidding them to seiul tlu-ir children to Moslem schools. Nevertheless, he kept his Christian medical men, some of whom were high in favour. He showed his hatred for the Shi'ites by causing the mausoleum erected over the tomb of Hosain at Kerbcla, together with all the buildings surrounding it, to be levelled to the ground and the site to be ploughed up, and by forbidding any one to visit the spot. A year before, a descendant of Hosain, YahyS b. Omar, had been arrested and flogged on his orders. He escaped afterwards, rose in rebellion at Kufa in 864, and was killed in battle. It is reported that the caliph even permitted one of his buffoons to turn the person of Ali into mockery. In the year 848-849 Ibn Ba'Ith, who had rendered good service in the war against Babak, but had for some cause been arrested, fled from Samarru to Marand in Azerbaijan and revolted. Not without great difficulty Bogha, the Turkish general, succeeded in taking the town and making Ibn Ba'ith prisoner. He was brought before Motawakkil and died in prison. In the year 237 (A.D. 851-852) a revolt broke out in Armenia. Notwithstanding a vigorous resistance, Bogha subdued and pacified the province in the following year. In that same year, 852-853, the Byzan- tines made a descent on Egypt with 300 vessels. 'Anbasa the governor had ordered the garrison of Damietta to parade at the capital Fostat. The denuded town was taken, plundered and burned. The Greeks then destroyed all the fortifications at the mouth of the Nile near Tinnis, and returned with prisoners and booty. The annual raids of Moslems and Greeks in the border districts of Asia Minor were attended with alternate successes, though on the whole the Greeks had the upper hand. In 856 they penetrated as far as Amid (Diarbekr), and returned with 10.000 prisoners. But in the year 859 the Greeks suffered a heavy defeat with losses of men and cattle, the emperor Michael himself was in danger, whilst the fleet of the Moslems captured and sacked Antalia. This was followed by a truce and an exchange of prisoners in the following year. In 855 a revolt broke out in Horns (Emesa), where the harsh conditions imposed by the caliph on the Christians and Jews had caused great discontent. It was repressed after a vigorous resistance. A great many leading men were flogged to death, all churches and synagogues were destroyed and all the Christians banished. In the year 851 the Boja (or Beja), a wild people living between the Red Sea and the Nile of Upper Egypt, the Blemmyes of the ancients, refused to pay the annual tribute, and invaded the land of the gold and emerald mines, so that the working of the mines was stopped. The caliph sent against them Mahommed al-Qommi, who subdued them in 856 and brought their king Ali Baba to Samarra before Motawakkil, on condition that he should be restored to his kingdom. About this time Sijistan liberated itself from the supremacy of the Tahirids. Ya'qub b. Laith al-Saffar proclaimed himself amir of that province in the year 860, and was soon after con- firmed in this dignity by the caliph. In 858 Motawakkil, hoping to escape from the arrogant patronage of Wasif, who had taken the place of Itakh as head of the Turkish guard, transferred his residence to Damascus. But the place did notagree with him, and he returned to Samarra, where he caused a magnificent quarter to be built 3 m. from the city, which he called after his own name Ja'fariya, and on which he spent more than two millions of dinars (about £000,000). He found the means by following the example of his predecessor in depriving many officials of their ill-gotten gains. He contrived to enrol in his service nearly 12,000 men, for the greater part Arabs, in order to crush the Turks. In the year of his elevation to the Caliphate, he had regulated the succession to the empire in his own family by designating as future caliphs his three sons, al-Montajir biU&h (" he who seeks help in God "), al-Mo'tazz billdk (" he whose strength is of God "), and al-Mowayyad bill&h (" he who is assisted by God "). By and by he conceived an aversion to his eldest son, and wished to supplant him by Motazz, the son of bis favourite wife Qabiha. The day bad been fixed on which Montasir, Wasif and several other Turkish generals were to be assassinated. But Wasif and Montasir had been informed, and resolved to anticipate him. In the night before, Shawwal A.H. 247 (December 861), Motawakkil, after one of his wonted orgies, was murdered, together with his confidant, Fath, b. Khaqan. The official report, promulgated by his successor, was that Fath b. Khaqfm had murdered his master and had been punished for it by death. For the administrative system in this reign see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS. n. Reign of Montasir. — On the very night of his father's assassination Montasir had himself proclaimed caliph. He was a man of very feeble character, and a mere puppet in the hands of his vizier Ahmad b. Khasib and the Turkish generals. He was compelled to send Wasif, the personal enemy of Ibn Khasib, to the frontier for a term of four years, and then to deprive his two brothers Motazz and Mowayyad, who were not agreeable to them, of their right of succession. He died six months after, by poison, it is said. 1 2. Reign of Mosta'in. — The Turkish soldiery, now the chief power in the state, chose, by the advice of Ibn Khasib, in suc- cession to Montasir, his cousin Ahmad, who took the title of al-Mosta'ln billdh (" he who looks for help to God "). In the reign of this feeble prince the Greeks inflicted serious losses on the Moslems in Asia Minor. A great many volunteers from all parts, who offered their services, were hunted down as rioters by the Turkish generals, who were wholly absorbed by their own interests. The party which had placed Mosta'in on the throne, led by Ibn Khasib and Otamish, were soon overpowered by Wasif and Bogha. Ibn Khasib was banished to Crete, Otamish murdered. The superior party, however, maintained Mosta'in on the throne, because they feared lest Motazz should take vengeance upon them for the murder of his father Mota- wakkil. But in the year 865 Wasif and Bogha fled with Mosta'in to Bagdad, and Motazz was proclaimed caliph at Samarra. A terrible war ensued; Mosta'in was obliged to abdicate, and was killed in the following year. In 864 a descendant of Ali, named Hasan b. Zaid, gained possession of Tabaristan and occupied the great city of Rai (Rey) near Teheran. A year later the province was reconquered by the Tahirid governor of Khorasan, so that Hasan was obliged to retreat for refuge to the land of the Dailam. But he returned soon, and after many reverses ruled over Tabaristan and Jorjan for many years. 13. Reign of Motazz. — Motazz, proclaimed caliph at Bagdad in the first month of 252 (January 866), devoted himself to the object of freeing himself from the omnipotent Turkish generals, especially Wasif and Bogha, who had opposed his election. But such a task demanded an ability and energy which he did not possess. He was obliged to grant them amnesty and to recall them to Samarra. He mistrusted also his brothers Mowayyad and Mowaffaq, who had interceded for them. He put the former to death and drove the latter into exile to Bagdad. Some time after he had the satisfaction of seeing Wasif killed by his own troops, and succeeded, a year later, in having Bogha assassinated. But a more difficult problem was the payment of the Turkish, Persian and African guards, which was said to have amounted in A.H. 252 to 200,000,000 dirhems l (about £6,500,000), 01 apparently twice the revenue derived from the land tax. As the provincial revenues annually decreased, it became impossible to pay this sum, and §alih the son of Wasif, in spite of the remonstrances of the caliph, confiscated the property of state officials. Upon a further demand, Motazz, having failed to procure money from his mother Qabiha, who was enormously rich, was seized upon and tortured, and died of starvation in prison (Shaaban 2 5 5, July 868). The dismemberment of the empire continued fast in these years, and the caliph was compelled to recognize the virtual independence of the governors Ya'qub the Saffarid (see SAF- FARIDS and PERSIA, History, § B) in Seistan, and Ahmad b. Tulun in Egypt. 1 " Dinars " in the text of Tabari iii. 1685, must be an error for " dirhems." CALIPHATE 14. Reign of Mohtadl. — Immediately after the seizure of Motazz, the Turks, led by Salih b. Waslf, proclaimed as caliph one of the sons of Wathiq with the title of al-Mohtadi billah (" the guided by God "), who, however, refused to occupy the throne until his predecessor had solemnly abdicated. Mohtadl, who was a man of noble and generous spirit and had no lack of energy, began by applying the precarious measure of power which was left him to the reform of the court. He banished the musicians and singers, and forbade all kinds of games; he devoted himself to the administration of justice, and gave public audiences to the people for the redress of their grievances. At the same time he contrived to elevate the power of the Abna, the descendants of those Persian soldiers who had established the dynasty of the Abbasids, in order to break the supremacy of the Turks and other mercenaries. But Mohtadl came too late, and the Turks did not leave him time to finish his work. On the news of the conspiracy against Motazz, Musa, the son of the famous general Bogha,1 then governor of Media (Jabal), ordered his deputy-general Moflih to return at once from a pro- posed invasion of Dailam, and moved with his army towards Samarra, notwithstanding the peremptory orders of the caliph. At his approach Salih, who was afraid of Musa, hid himself, but was soon discovered and killed. At that moment a Kharijite, named Mosawir, who in 867 had risen in Mesopotamia and beaten more than one general of the government, took Balad and menaced Mosul. Musa could not refuse to comply with the formal command of the caliph to march against him. During the absence of these troops, Mohtadl seems to have tried to get rid of the principal Turkish leaders. A brother of Musa and one of his best generals, Bayikbeg (Baiekbak), were killed, but the soldiery he had gained over for himself were not strong enough. Mohtadl was overwhelmed and killed, Rajab 256 (June 870). 15. Reign of Motamid. — Whether from weariness or from repentance, the Turkish soldiery discontinued for a time their hateful excesses, and their new leader, Musa b. Bogha, was without the greed and ambition of his predecessors. A son of Motawakkil was brought out of prison to succeed his cousin, and reigned for twenty-three years under the name of al-Mo'tamid 'ala'Uak (" he whose support is God ") . He was a feeble, pleasure- loving monarch, but Mohtadl had regained for the Caliphate some authority, which was exercised by Obaidallah b. Khaqan, the able vizier of Mohtadl, and by Motamid's talented brother Abu Ahmad al-Mowaffaq; Musa b. Bogha himself remained till his death a staunch servant of the government. During the reign of Motamid great events took place. The great power long wielded by the Tahirids, not only in the eastern provinces, but also at Bagdad itself, had been gradually diminishing, and came to an end in the year 873, when Ya'qub the Saffarid occupied Nishapur and imprisoned Mahommed b. Tahir with his whole family. The power of Ya'qub then increased to such an extent that he was not content with the caliph's offer to recognize him as supreme in the provinces he had conquered, and military governor of Bagdad, but marched against Irak. The caliph himself, wearing the mantle and the staff of the Prophet, then went out against him, and after a vigorous resistance he was beaten by Mowaffaq, who had the command of the troops, and fled to Jondisapur in Khuzistan, where he died three years later, leaving his empire to his brother 'Amr. This prince maintained himself in power till the year 900, when he was beaten and taken prisoner by Isma'Il b. Ahmed the Samanid. The Samanids had been governors of Transoxiana from the time of Mamun, and after the fall of the Tahirids, had been confirmed in this office by the caliph. After 287 (900) they were independent princes, and under their dominion these districts attained to high prosperity. Motamid had also to deal with a rising of the negro slaves in the province of Basra, led by one Ali b. Mahommed, who called himself a descendant of Ali. It lasted from 869 to 883, and tasked the government to its utmost.2 1This Bogha was caned al-Kabir, or major; the ally of Wasif, a man of much inferior consideration, al-Saghir, or minor. 1 See Noldeke, Orienlalische Skizzen, pp. 155 seq. In the west, Ahmad b. Tulun became a mighty prince, whose sway extended over Syria and a part of Mesopotamia. Motamid, who wished to free himself from the guardianship of his brother Mowaffaq, concerted with him a plan to emigrate to Egypt, Ahmad being himself angered against Mowaffaq on personal grounds. Motamid's flight was stopped by his vizier Ibn Makhlad, and the caliph himself was reconducted to Samarra as a prisoner in the year 882. From that time there was war between the Abbasids and the Tulunids. Ahmad died in 270 (884). His son Khomaruya succeeded him, and maintained himself in power till his death in 896, in which year his daughter was married to the caliph Motadid. Ten years later Egypt was conquered by a general of the caliph Moktafl. During the reign of Motamid the emperor Basil I. conducted the war against the Moslems with great success, till in the year 270 (A.D. 884) his army suffered a terrible defeat near Tarsus, in which the greater part of the army, the commander Andreas, and many other patricians perished. Motamid had appointed his son al-Mofawwid as successor to the Caliphate, and after him his brother Mowaffaq. When the latter died in the year 891, his son Abu '!-' Abbas, al-Mo'tadid (" he who seeks his support in God "), was put in his place. Next year Mofawwid was compelled to abdicate in favour of his cousin. Shortly after Motamid died, Rajab 279 (October 892). Not long before these events, the seat of the Caliphate had been restored to Bagdad. 16. Reign of Motadid. — Motadid may be called, after Mansur, the most able and energetic of all the Abbasid rulers. He took good care of the finances, reformed the administration, was an excellent commander in war, and maintained order as far as possible. The Kharijites in Mesopotamia, who for many years had molested the government, were finally crushed with the aid of their former ally Hamdan, who became the founder of the well-known dynasty of the IJamdanites. The mighty house of Abu Dolaf in the south-west of Media, which had never ceased to encroach on the Caliphate, was put down. The governor of Azerbaijan and Armenia, belonging to the powerful Turkish house of the Sajids or Sajites, whose loyalty was always doubtful, planned an invasion of Syria and Egypt. Motadid frustrated it by a quick movement. The citizens of Tarsus who were involved in the plot were severely punished. The chief punishment, however, the burning of the fleet, was a very impolitic measure, as it strengthened the hands of the Byzantines. Almost simultaneously with the rising of the negro slaves in Basra there arose in the province of Kufa the celebrated sect of the Carmathians (po), but the Moslems were successful at sea, and in 907 captured Iconium, whilst Andronicus went over to the caliph's so that the Byzantine emperor sent an embassy to Bagdad to ask for a truce and an exchange of prisoners. 1 8. Reign of Mpqtadir.— The sudden death of Moktafi, Dhu'l- qa'da 295 (August 008), was a fatal blow to the prestige of the Caliphate, which ha:a was overpowered ; 2 500 men perished, while an even larger number were made prisoners and brought to Lahsa, the residence of the Carmathian princes, together with an immense booty. The caravan which left Bagdad towards the end of this year returned in all haste before it had covered a third of the way. Then Kufa underwent the fate that had befallen Basra. In 313 (A.D. 926) the caravan was allowed to pass on payment of a large sum of money. The government of Bagdad resolved to crush the Carmathians, but a large army was utterly defeated by Abu Tahir in 315 (927), and Bagdad was seriously threatened. Next year Mecca was taken and plundered; even the sacred Black Stone was transported to Lahsa, where it remained till 339 (930), when by the express order of the Imam, the Fatimite caliph, it was restored to the Ka'ba. In 317 (929) a conspiracy was formed to dethrone Moqtadir, to which Munis, the chief commander of the army, at first assented, irritated by false reports. Very soon he withdrew, and though he could not prevent the plundering of the palace, and the proclamation as caliph of another son of Motadid with the title al-Qahir billdh (" the victorious through God "), he rescued Moqtadir and his mother, and at the same time his imprisoned friend Ali b. 'Isa, and brought them to his own house. A few days later, a counter-revolution took place; the leaders of the revolt were killed, and Moqtadir, against his wish, was replaced on the throne. In 320 (A.D. 932) MQnis, discovering a court intrigue against him, set out for Mosul, expecting that the ilamdanids, who owed to him their power, would join him. Instead of doing this, they opposed him with a numerous army, but were defeated. Munis took Mosul, and having received reinforcements from all parts, marched against Bagdad. The caliph, who wished nothing more than to be reconciled to his old faithful servant, was forced to take arms against him, and fell in battle Shawwal 320 (October 932), at the age of 38 years. His reign, which lasted almost twenty-five years, was in all respects injurious to the empire. 19. Reign of Qahir. — After the victory Munis acted with great moderation and proclaimed a general amnesty. His own wish was to call Abu Ahmad, a son of Moktafi, or a son of Moq- tadir, to the Caliphate, but the majority of generals preferring Qahir because he was an adult man and had no mother at his side, he acquiesced, although he had a personal dislike for him, knowing his selfish and cruel character. Qahir was a drunkard, and derived the money for his excesses from promiscuous con- fiscation. He ill-treated the sons of Moqtadir and Abu Ahmad, and ultimately assassinated his patrons Munis and Yalbak, whose guardianship he resented. In Jornada I. 322 (April 934) he was dethroned and blinded, and died in poverty seven years later. During the last years of Moqtadir and the reign of Qahir a new dynasty rose. Buya, the chief of a clan of the Dailam, a warlike people who inhabit the mountainous country south-west of the Caspian Sea, had served under the Samanids, and found a footing in the south of Media (Jabal), whence his three sons — well known under the titles they assumed at a later period: 'Imad addaula (" prop of the dynasty "), Rokn addaula (" pillar of the dynasty "), and Mo'izz addaula (" strengthener of the dynasty ") — succeeded in subduing the province of Pars, at the time of Qahir's dethronement (see PERSIA: History). 20. Reign of Radi. — Moqtadir's son, who was then proclaimed caliph under the name of ar-Rddl billdh (" the content through God "), was pious and well-meaning, but inherited only the shadow of power. The vizier Ibn Moqla tried to maintain his authority at least in Irak and Mesopotamia, but without success. The treasury was exhausted, the troops asked for pay, the people in Bagdad were riotous. In this extremity the caliph bade Ibn Raiq, who had made himself master of Basra and Wasit, and had command of money and men, to come to his help. He created for him the office of Amir al-Omara, " Amir of the Amirs," which nearly corresponds to that of Mayor of the Palace among the Franks.1 Thenceforth the worldly power of the Caliphate was a mere shadow. The empire was by this time practically reduced to the province of Bagdad; Khorasan and Transoxiana were in the hands of the Samanids, Fars in those of the Buyids; Kirman and Media were under independent sovereigns; the Hamdanids possessed Mesopotamia; the Sajids Armenia and Azerbaijan; the Ikshidites Egypt; as we have seen, the Fatimites Africa, the Carmathians Arabia. The Amir al-Omara was obliged to purchase from the latter the freedom of the pilgrimage to Mecca, at the price of a disgraceful treaty. During the troubles of the Caliphate the Byzantines had made great advances; they had even taken Malatia and Samosata (Samsat). But the great valour of the Hamdanid prince Saif- addaula checked their march. The Greek army suffered two severe defeats and sued for peace. 2 1 . Reign of Mottaqi. — Radi died in Rabia I. A.H.3 29 (December 940). Another son of Moqtadir was then proclaimed caliph under the name of al-Mottaqi billdh (" he who guards himself by God "). At the time of his accession the Amir al-Omara was the Turkish general Bajkam, in whose favour Ibn Raiq had been obliged to retire. Unfortunately Bajkam died soon after, and his death was followed by general anarchy. A certain Baridl, who had carved out for himself a principality in the province of Basra, marched against Bagdad and made himself master of the capital, but was soon driven out by the Dailamite general •See Defremery, Mlmoirc sur Us Emirs al-Omara (Paris, 1848). CALIPHATE Kurtakin. Ibn Raiq came back and reinstated himself as Amir al-Omara. But Baridi again laid siege to Bagdad, and Mottaqi fled to Nasir addaula the Hamdanid prince of Mosul, who then marched against Bagdad, and succeeded in repelling Baridi. In return he obtained the office of Amir al-Omara. But the Dailamite and Turkish soldiery did not suffer him to keep this office longer than several months. Tuzun, a former captain of Bajkam, compelled him to return to Mosul and took his place. Mottaqi fled again to Mosul and thence to Rakka. The Ikshid, sovereign of Egypt and Syria, offered him a refuge, but Tuzun, fearing to see the caliph obtain such powerful support, found means to entice him to his tent, and had his eyes put out, Saphar 333 (October 944). 22. Reign of Moslakfi. — As successor Tuzun chose al-Mostakfl billdh ("he who finds full sufficiency with God "), a son of Moktafi. This prince, still more than his predecessors, was a. mere puppet in the hands of Tuzun, who died a few months later, and his successor Ibn Shlrzad. Such was the weakness of the caliph that a notorious robber, named Hamdl, obtained immunity for -his depredations by a monthly payment of 25,000 dinars. One of the Buyid princes, whose power had been steadily increasing, marched about this time against Bagdad, which he entered in Jornada I. A.H. 334 (December 945), and was acknowledged by the caliph as legal sovereign, under the title of Sultan. He assumed at this time the name of Mo'izz addaula. Mostakfi was soon weary of this new master, and plotted against him. At least Mo'izz addaula suspected him and deprived him of his eyesight, Jornada II. A.H. 334 (January 946). There were thus in Bagdad three caliphs who had been dethroned and blinded, Qahir, Mottaqi and Mostakfi. 23. Reign of Motl. — Mo'izz addaula soon abandoned his original idea of restoring the title of caliph to one of the descend- ants of Ali, fearing a strong opposition of the people, and also dreading lest this should lead to the recovery by the caliphs of their former supremacy. His choice fell on a son of Moqtadir, who took the title of al-Motl' billdh ("he who obeys God"). The sultan, reserving to himself all the powers and revenues of the Caliphate, allowed the caliph merely a secretary and a pension of 5000 dirhems a day. Though in public prayers and on the coins the name of the caliph remained as that of the supreme authority, he had in reality no authority out of the palace, so that the saying became proverbial, " he contents himself with sermon and coin." The Hamdanid prince of Mosul, who began to think his possessions threatened by Mo'izz addaula, tried without success to wrest Bagdad from him, and was obliged to submit to the payment of tribute. He died in 358 (A.D. 969), and ten years later the power of this branch of the Hamdanids came to an end. The representative of the other branch, Saif addaula, the prince of Haleb (Aleppo), conducted the war against the Byzantines with great valour till his death in 356 (A.D. 967), but could not stop the progress of the enemy. His descendants maintained themselves, but with very limited power, till A.H. 413 (A.D. 1022). Mo'izz addaula died in the same year as Saif addaula, leaving his power to his son Bakhtiyar 'Izz addaula, who lacked his father's energy and loved pleasure more than business. While the Abbasid dynasty was thus dying out in shame and degradation, the Fatimites, in the person of Mo'izz li-dln-allah (or Mo'izz Abu Tamin Ma'add) (" he who makes God's religion victorious "), were reaching the highest degree of power and glory in spite of the opposition of the Carmathians, who left their old allegiance and entered into negotiations with the court of Bagdad, offering to drive back the Fatimites, on condition of being assisted with money and troops, and of being rewarded with the government of Syria and Egypt. The former condition was granted, but the caliph emphatically refused the latter demand, saying: " Both parties are Carmathians, they profess the same religion and are enemies of Islam." The Carmathians drove the Fatimites out of Syria, and threatened Egypt, but, notwithstanding their intrepidity, they were not able to cope with their powerful rival, who, however, in his turn could not bring them to submission. In 978-979 peace was made on condition that the Carmathians should evacuate Syria for an annual payment of 70,000 dinars. But the losses sustained by the Carmathians during that struggle had been enormous. Their power henceforward declined, and came to an end in A.H. 474 (A.D. 1081). Mo'izz addaula, as we have seen, professed a great veneration for the house of Ali. He not only caused the mourning for the death of Hosain and other Shi'ite festivals to be celebrated at Bagdad, but also allowed imprecations against Moawiya and even against Mahomet's wife Ayesha and the caliphs Abu Bekr, Omar and Othman, to be posted up at the doors of the mosques. These steps annoyed the people and the Turkish soldiery, who were Sunnites, and led at last to an insurrection. Mod was compelled to abdicate, and Bakhtiyar was driven out of Bagdad Dhu'l-qa'da 363 (August 974). 24. Reign of Tai. — Moti left the empty title of caliph to his son al-Td'i li-amri'lldh (" the obedient to the command of God "). The Turks who had placed him on the throne could not maintain themselves, but so insignificant was the person of the caliph that 'Adod addaula, who succeeded his cousin Bakhtiyar in Bagdad, did not think of replacing him by another. Under this prince, or king, as he was called, the power of the Buyids reached its zenith. His empire stretched from the Caspian to the Persian Sea, and in the west to the eastern frontier of Syria. He did his best to remedy the misery caused by the intestine wars, repaired the ruined mosques and other public edifices, founded hospitals and libraries — his library in Shiraz was one of the wonders of the world — and improved irrigation. It was also he who built the mausoleum of Hosain at Kerbela, and that of Ali at Kufa. But after his death in the year 372 (A.D. 983), his sons, instead of following the example of their predecessors, the three sons of Buya, fought one against the other. In 380 (A.D. 990) the youngest of them, Baha addaula, had the upper hand. This prince, who was as avaricious as he was ambitious, wishing to deprive the caliph Ta'i of his possessions, compelled him to abdicate A.H. 381 (A.D. 991). 25. Reign of Qddir. — A grandson of Moqtadir was then made caliph under the name of al-Qddir billdh (" the powerful through God "). The only deed of power, however, that is recorded of him, is that he opposed himself to the substitution of a Shi'ite head cadi for the Sunnite, so that Baha addaula had to content himself with giving to the Shi'ites a special judge, to whom he gave the title of naqib (superintendent). During this caliphate the Buyid princes were in continual war with one another. Meanwhile events were preparing the fall of their dynasty. In 350 (A.D. 961) a Turkish general of the Samanids had founded for himself a principality in Ghazni, and at his death in 366 (A.D. 976) his successor Sabuktagin had conquered Bost in Sijistan and Qosdar in Baluchistan, beaten the Indian prince Diaya Pala, and been acknowledged as master of the lands west of the Indus. At his death in 387 his son Mahmud conquered the whole of Khorasan and Sijistan, with a great part of India. He then attacked the Buyids, and would have destroyed their dynasty but for his death in the year 421 (A.D. 1030). In 389 (A.D. 999) Ilek-khan, the prince of Turkistan, took Bokhara and made an end to the glorious state of the Samanids, the last prince of which was murdered in 395 (A.D. 1005). The Samanids had long been a rampart of the Caliphate against the Turks, whom they held under firm control. From their fall dates the invasion of the empire by that people. The greatest gainer for the moment was Mahmud of Ghazni. In Mesopotamia and Irak several petty states arose on the ruins of the dominions of the Hamdanids and of the Abbasids. Qadir died in the last month of A.H. 422 (November 1031). He is the author of some theological treatises. 26. Reign of Qdim. — He was succeeded by his son, who at his accession took the title of al-Qdim bi-amri lldh (" he who main- tains the cause of God "). During the first half of his long reign took place the development of the power of the Ghuzz, a great Turkish tribe, who took the name Seljuk from Seljuk their chief in Transoxiana. Already during the reign of Mahmud large bodies had passed the Oxus and spread over Khorasan and the adjacent CALIPHATE 53 countries. In the time of his successor the bulk of the trilv followed, and in the year 429 (A.D. 1038) Toghrul Beg, their chief, beat the army of the Ghazncvids and made his entry into .ipur. Thenceforth this progress was rapid (sec SELJUKS). The situation in Bagdad had become so desperate that the caliph called Toghrul to his aid. This prince entered Bagdad in the month of Ramadan A.H. 447 (December 1055), and overthrew finally the dynasty of the BQyids.1 In 449 (A.D. 1058) the caliph gave him the title of " King of the East and West." But in the following year, 450, during his absence, the Shi'ites made them- selves masters of the metropolis, and proclaimed the Caliphate of the Fatimite prince Mostansir. They were soon overthrown by Toghrul, who was now supreme, and compelled the caliph to give him his daughter in marriage. Before the marriage, however, he died, and was succeeded by his nephew Alp Arslan, who died in 463 (25th December) (A.D. 1072). Qaim died two years later, Shaaban A.H. 467 (April 1073). In the year 440 Mo'izz b. Badis, the Zeirid ruler of the Maghrib, made himself independent, and substituted in prayer the name of the Abbasid caliph for that of Mostansir. In order to punish him, the latter gave permission to the Arab tribes in Egypt to cross the Nile, and granted them possession of all the lands they should conquer. This happened in 442 (A.D. 1050) and was of the greatest significance for the subsequent fate of Africa. 27. Reign of Moqtadi. — In the first year of the Caliphate of al-iloqtadl bi-amri'lldh (" he who follows the orders of God "), a grandson of Qaim, the power of the Seljuk empire reached its zenith. All the eastern provinces, a great part of Asia Minor, Syria with the exception of a few towns on the shore, the main part of West Africa acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad as the Imam. Yemen had been subjected, and at Mecca and Medina his name was substituted in the public prayers for that of the Fatimite caliph. But after the death of Malik-Shah a contest for the sultanate took place. The caliph, who had in 1087 married the daughter of Malik-Shah, had been compelled two years after to send her back to her father, as she complained of being neglected by her husband. Just before his death, the Sultan had ordered him to transfer his residence from Bagdad to Basra. After his death he stayed and supported the princess Turkan Khatun. This lost him his life. The day after Barki- yaroq's triumphant entry into Bagdad, Muharram 487 (February 1094), he died suddenly, apparently by poison. 28. Reign of Mostazhir. — Al-Mostazhir billdk (" he who seeks to triumph through God "), son of Moqtadi, was only sixteen years old when he was proclaimed caliph. His reign is memorable chiefly for the growing power of the Assassins (q.v.) and for the first Crusade (see CRUSADES) . The Seljuk princes were too much absorbed by internal strife to concentrate against the new assailants. After the death of Barkiyaroq in November 1104, his brother Mahommed reigned till April 1118. His death was followed about four months later by that of Mostazhir. 29. Reign of Mostarshid. — Al-Mostarshid billdh (" he who asks guidance from God "), who succeeded his father in Rabia II. 512 (August 1 1 18), distinguished himself by a vain attempt to re- establish the power of the caliph. Towards the end of the year 529 (October 1134) he was compelled to promise that ne would confine himself to his palace and never again take the field. Not long after he was assassinated. About the same time Dobais was killed, a prince of the family of the Banu Mazyad, who had founded the Arabian state of Hillah in the vicinity of the ruins of Babel in 1102. 30. Reign of Rdshid.—Al-Rdshid biUah ("the just through God ") tried to follow the steps of his father, with the aid of Zcngi, the prince of Mosul. But the sultan Mas'Qd beat the army of the allies, took Bagdad and had Rashid deposed (August 1136). Rashid escaped, but was murdered two years later. 31. Reign of Moqlafi. — His successor Al-Moqlafi li-amri'lldh [" he who follows the orders of God "), son of Mostazhir, had better success. He was real ruler not only of the district of Bagdad, but also of the rest of Irak, which he subdued by force. 1 Henceforward the history of the Caliphate is largely that of the Seljuk princes (see SELJUKS). He died in the month of Rabia II. 555 (March 1160). Under his reign the central power of the Seljuks was rapidly sinking. In the west of Atabeg (prince's guardian) ZengI, the prince of Mosul, had extended his dominion over Mesopotamia and the north of Syria, where he had been the greatest defender of Islam against the Franks. At his death in the year 541 (A.D. 1146), his noble son, the well-known NOreddln, who was called " the just king," continued his father's glorious career. Transoxiana was conquered by the heathen hordes of Khata, who towards the end of 535 (A.D. 1141) under the king Ghurkhan defeated the great army of the Seljuk prince and compelled the Turkish tribes of the Ghuzz to cross the Oxus and to occupy Khorasan. 32. Reign of Mostanjid. — Al-Moslanjid billdk ("he who invokes help from God "), the son of Moqtafi, enlarged the dominion of the Caliphate by making an end to the state of the Mazyadites in Hillah. His allies were the Arabic tribe of the Montafiq, who thenceforth were powerful in southern Irak. The greatest event towards the end of his Caliphate was the conquest of Egypt by the army of Nureddin, the overthrow of the Fatimite dynasty, and the rise of Saladin. He was killed by his major- domo in Rabia II. 566 (December 1170). 33. Reign of Mostadi. — His son and successor al-MostadV bi- amri'lldh (" he who seeks enlightenment by the orders of God "), though in Egypt his name was now substituted in public prayers for that of the Fatimite caliph, was unable to obtain any real authority. By the death of Nureddin in 569 (A.D. 1 1 74) Saladin's power became firmly rooted. The dynasty founded by him is called that of the Ayyubites, after the name of his father Ayyub. Mostadi died in the month of Dhu'l-qa'da 575 (March 1180). 34. Reignof Nasir. — Quite a different man from his father was his successor al-Ndsir li-dlni'lldh(" he who helps the religion of God " ) . During his reign Jerusalem was reconquered by Saladin, 27 Rajab 583 (October 2nd, 1187). Not long before that event the well- known Spanish traveller Ibn Jubair visited the empire of Saladin, and came to Bagdad in 580, where he saw the caliph himself. Nasir was very ambitious; he had added Khuzistan to his dominions, and desired to become also master of Media (Jabal, or Persian Irak, as it was called in the time of the Seljuks). Here, however, he came into conflict with the then mighty prince of Khwarizm (Khiva), who, already exasperated because the caliph refused to grant him the honours he asked for, resolved to overthrow the Caliphate of the Abbasids, and to place a descendant of Ali on the throne of Bagdad. In his anxiety, Nasir took a step which brought the greatest misery upon western Asia, or at least accelerated its arrival. In the depths of Asia a great conglomeration of east Turkish tribes (Tatars or Mongols), formed by a terrible warrior, known under his honorific title Jenghiz Khan, had conquered the northern provinces of China, and extended its power to the frontiers of the Transoxianian regions. To this heathen chief the Imam of the Moslems sent a messenger, inducing him to attack the prince of Khwarizm, who already had provoked the Mon- golian by a disrespectful treatment of his envoys. Neither he nor the caliph had the slightest notion of the imminent danger they conjured up. When Nasir died, Ramadan 622 (October 1225), the eastern provinces of the empire had been trampled down by the wild hordes, the towns burned, and the inhabitants killed without mercy. 35. Reign of Zdhir. — Al-Zahir bi-amri'lldh (" the victorious through the orders of God ") died within a year after his father's death, in Rajab 623 (July 1226). He and his son and successor are praised as beneficent and just princes. 36. Reign of Mostansir. — Al-Mostansir billdh (" he who asks help from God ") was caliph till his death in Jornada II. 640 (December 1242). In the year 624 (1227) Jenghiz Khan died, but the Mongol invasion continued to advance with immense strides. The only man who dared, and sometimes with success, to combat them was Jelaleddin, the ex-king of Khwarizm, but after his death in 628 (A.D. 1231) all resistance was paralysed. 37. Reign of Moslasim. — Al-Mosta's,im billdh ("he who clings to God for protection "), son of Mostansir, the last caliph of Bagdad, was a narrow-minded, irresolute man, guided moreover 54 CALIVER— CALIXTUS by bad counsellors. In the last month of the year 653 (January 1256) Hulaku or Hulagu, the brother of the great khan of the Mongols, crossed the Oxus, and began by destroying all the strongholds of the Isma'ilis. Then the turn of Bagdad came. On the nth of Muharram 656 (January 1258) Hulaku arrived under the walls of the capital. In vain did Mostasim sue for peace. Totally devoid of dignity and heroism, he ended by surrendering and imploring mercy from the barbarian victor. On the 4th of Saphar (February loth) he came with his retinue into the camp. The city was then given up to plunder and slaughter; many public buildings were burnt; the caliph, after having been compelled to bring forth all the hidden treasures of the family, was killed with two of his sons and many relations. With him expired the eastern Caliphate of the Abbasids, which had lasted 524 years, from the entry of Abu'l-Abbas into Kufa. In vain, three years later, did Abu'l-Qasim Ahmad, a scion of the race of the Abbasids, who had taken refuge in Egypt with Bibars the Mameluke sultan, and who had been proclaimed caliph under the title al-Mostansir Ulldh (" he who seeks help from God "), make an effort to restore a dynasty which was now for ever extinct. At the head of an army he marched against Bagdad, but was defeated and killed before he reached that city. Then another descendant of the Abbasids, who also had found an asylum in Egypt, was proclaimed caliph at Cairo under the name of al-Hdkim bi-amri'lldh (" he who decides according to the orders of God "). His sons inherited his title, but, like their father, remained in Egypt without power or influence (see EGYPT : History, " Mahommedan period "). This shadow of sovereignty continued to exist till the conquest of Egypt by the Turkish sultan Selim I., who compelled the last of them, Motawakkil, to abdicate in his favour (see TURKEY: History). He died at Cairo, a pensionary of the Ottoman government, in 1538. Another scion of the Abbasid family, Mahommed, a great- grandson of the caliph Mostansir, found at a later period a refuge in India, where the sultan of Delhi received him with the greatest respect, named him Makhdumzadeh, " the Master's son," and treated him as a prince. Ibn Batuta saw him when he visited India, and says that he was very avaricious. On his return to Bagdad the traveller found there a young man, son of this prince, who gained a single dirhem daily for serving as imam in a mosque, and did not get the least relief from his rich father. It seems that this Mahommed, or his son, emigrated later to Sumatra, where in the old Samutra the graves of their descendants have been lately discovered. (M. J. DE G.) CALIVER, a firearm used in the i6th century. The word is an English corruption of " calibre," and arises from the " arque- bus of calibre," that is, of standard bore, which replaced the older arquebus. " Caliver," therefore, is practically synonymous with " arquebus." The heavier musket, fired from a rest, re- placed the caliver or arquebus towards the close of the century. CALIXTUS, or CALLISTUS, the name of three popes. CALIXTUS I., pope from 217 to 222, was little known before the discovery of the book of the Philosophumena. From this work, which is in part a pamphlet directed against him, we learn that Calixtus was originally a slave and engaged in banking. Falling on evil times, he was brought into collision with the Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured his exile to Sardinia. On his return from exile he was pensioned by Pope Victor, and, later, was associated by Pope Zephyrinus in the government of the Roman church. On the death of Zephyrinus (217) he was elected in his place and occupied the papal chair for five years. His theological adversary Hippolytus, the author of the Philosophumena, accused him of having favoured the modalist or Patripassian doctrines both before and after his election. Calixtus, however, condemned Sabellius, the most prominent champion of that system. Hippolytus accused him also of certain relaxations of discipline. It appears that Calixtus reduced the penitential severities applied until his time to those guilty of adultery and other analogous sins. Under Calixtus and his two immediate successors, Hippolytus was the leader of a schismatic group, organized by way of protest against the election of Calixtus. Calixtus died in 222, in cir- cumstances obscured by legends. In the time of Constantine the Roman church reckoned him officially among the martyr popes. (L. D.*) CALIXTUS II. (d. 1124), pope from 1119 to 1124, was Guido, a member of a noble Burgundian family, who became archbishop of Vienne about 1088, and belonged to the party which favoured reform in the Church. In September 1112, after Pope Paschal II. had made a surrender to the emperor Henry V., Guido called a council at Vienne, which declared against lay investiture, and excommunicated Henry. In February 1119 he was chosen pope at Cluny in succession to Gelasius II., and in opposition to the anti-pope Gregory VIII., who was in Rome. Soon after his consecration he opened negotiations with the emperor with a view to settling the dispute over investiture. Terms of peace were arranged, but at the last moment difficulties arose and the treaty was abandoned; and in October 1119 both emperor and anti-pope were excommunicated at a synod held at Reims. The journey of Calixtus to Rome early in 1120 was a triumphal march. He was received with great enthusiasm in the city, while Gregory, having fled to Sutri, was delivered into his hands and treated with great ignominy. Through the efforts of some German princes negotiations between pope and emperor were renewed, and the important Concordat of Worms made in September 1122 was the result. This treaty, made possible by concessions on either side, settled the investiture controversy, and was confirmed by the Lateran council of March 1123. During his short reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of the papacy in southern Italy by military expeditions, and restored several buildings within the city of Rome. During preparations for a crusade he died in Rome on the i3th or i4th of December 1124. See M. Maurer, Pabst Calixt II. (Munich, 1889); U. Robert, Histoire du pape Calixte II. (Paris, 1891) ; and A. Hauck's Real- encyklopddie, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897). CALIXTUS III. (c. 1378-1458), pope from r45$ to 1458, was a Spaniard named Alphonso de Borgia, or Borja. A native of Xativa, he gained a great reputation as a jurist, becoming pro- fessor at Lerida; in 1429 he was made bishop of Valencia, and in 1444 a cardinal, owing his promotion mainly to his close friendship with Alphonso V., king of Aragon and Sicily. Chosen pope in April 1455, he was very anxious to organize a crusade against the Turks, and having sold many of his possessions, succeeded in equipping a fleet. Neither the princes nor the people of Europe, however, were enthusiastic in this cause, and very little result came from the pope's exertions. During his papacy Calixtus became involved in a quarrel with his former friend, Alphonso of Aragon, now also king of Naples, and after the king's death in June 1458 he refused to recognize his ille- gitimate son, Ferdinand, as king of Naples, asserting that this kingdom was a fief of the Holy See. This pope was notorious for nepotism, and was responsible for introducing his nephew, Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., to Rome. He died on the 6th of August 1458. See A. Hauck's Realencyklopadie, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897). CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586-1656), Lutheran divine, was born at Medelby, a village of Schleswig, in 1586. After studying philology, philosophy and theology at Helmstadt, Jena, Giessen, Tubingen and Heidelberg, he travelled through Holland, France and England, where he became acquainted with the leading Reformers. On his return in 1614 he was appointed professor of theology at Helmstadt by the duke of Brunswick, who had admired the ability he displayed when a young man in a dispute with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. In 1613 he published a book, Disputationes de Praecipuis Religionis Christianae Capitibus, which provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in 1619 he published his Epitome theologiae, and some years later his Theologia Moralis (1634) and De Arte Nova Nihusii. Roman Catholics felt them to be aimed at their own system, but they gave so great offence to Lutherans as to induce Statius Buscher to charge the author with a secret leaning to Romanism. Scarcely had he refused the accusation of Buscher, when, on account of CALL— CALLAO 55 his intimacy with the Reformed divines at the conference of Thorn (1645), and his desire to effect a reconciliation between them and the Lutherans, a new charge was preferred against him, principally at the instance of Abraham Calovius (1612-1686), of a secret attachment to Calvinism. In fact, the great aim of his life was to reconcile Christendom by removing all unimportant differences. The disputes to which this attitude gave rise, known in the Church as the Syticrctistic controversy, lasted during the whole lifetime of Calixi us. and distracted the Lutheran church, till a new controversy arose with P. J. Spener and the Pietists of Halle. Calixius died in 1656. There is a monograph on Calixtus by E. L. T. Henke (2 vols., 1853-1856); see also Isaak Dorner, Gesch. d. protest. Theol. pp. 606- 6.'4 ; and especially Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadic. CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceailian, a common Teutonic word, cf . Dutch kaUen, to talk or chatter), to speak in a loud voice, and particularly to attract some one's attention by a loud utterance. Hence its use for a visit at a house, where the name of the occupier, to whom the visit was made, was called aloud, in early times, to indicate the presence of the visitor. It is thus trans- ferred to a short stay at a place, but usually with the idea of a specific purpose, as in " port of call," where ships stop in passing. Connected with the idea of summoning by name are such uses as " roll-call " or " call-over," where names are called over and answered by those present; similar uses are the " call to the bar," the summoning at an Inn of Court of those students qualified to practise as barristers, and the " call within the bar " to the appointment of king's counsel. In the first case the " bar " is that which separates the benchers from the rest of the body of members of the Inn, in the other the place in a court of law within which only king's counsel, and formerly serjeants-at-law, are allowed to plead. " Call " is also used with a particular reference to a divine summons, as of the calling of the apostles. It is thus used in nonconformist churches of the invitation to serve as minister a particular congregation or chapel. It is from this sense of a vocatio or summons that the word " calling " is used, not only of the divine vocation, but of a man's ordinary profession, occupation or business. In card games " call " is used, in poker, of the demand that the hand of the highest bettor be exposed or seen, exercised by that player who equals his bet; in whist or bridge, of a certain method of play, the " call " for a suit or for trumps on the part of one partner, to which the other is expected to respond; and in many card games for the naming of a card, irregularly exposed, which is laid face up on the table, and may be thus " called " for, at any point the opponent may choose. " Call " is also a term on the English and American stock exchanges for a contract by which, in consideration of a certain sum, an " option " is given by the person making or signing the agreement to another named therein or his order or to bearer, to " call " for a specified amount of stock at a certain day for a certain price. A " put," which is the reverse of a " call," is the option of selling (putting) stock at a certain day for a certain price. A combined option of either calling or putting is termed a " straddle," and sometimes on the American stock exchange a " spread-eagle." (See further STOCK EXCHANGE.) The word is also used, in connexion with joint-stock companies, to signify a demand for instalments due on shares, when the capital of the company has not been demanded or "called "upatonce. (See COMPANY.) CALLANDER, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 16 m. north-west of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (igoi) 1458. Situated on the north bank of the Teith, here crossed by a three-arched bridge, and sheltered by a ridge of wooded hills, it is in growing repute as a health resort. A mile and a half north- east are the Falls of Bracklinn (Gaelic, "white-foaming pool"), formed by the Keltic, which takes a leap of 50 ft. down the red sandstone gorge on its way to the Tcith. Two miles north-west of Callander is the Pass of Leny, " the gate of the Highlands," and farther in the same direction is Loch Lubnaig, on the shores of which stand the ruins of St Bride's chapel. Callander owes much of its prosperity to the fact that it is the centre from which the Trossachs is usually visited, the route being that described in Scott's Lady of the Lake. The ascent of Ben Ledi is commonly made from the town. CALLAO, a city, port and coast department of Peru, 8J m. west of Lima, in 12° 04' S., 77° 13' W. Pop. (1005) 31,128, of whom 3349 were foreigners. The department includes the city and its environs, Bella vista and La Punta, and the neighbouring islands, San Lorenzo, Fronton, the Palominos, &c., and covers an area of 14 J sq. m. Callao is the principal port of the republic, its harbour being a large bay sheltered by a tongue of land on the south called La Punta, and by the islands of San Lorenzo and Fronton. The anchorage is good and safe, and the harbour is one of the best on the Pacific coast of South America. The city stands on the south side of the bay, and is built on a flat point of land only 8 ft. above sea-level. The houses are for the most part low and cheaply built, and the streets are narrow, badly paved, irregular and dirty. The climate is good and the coast is swept by cool ocean breezes, the average temperatures ranging from 65° to 77° F., but notwithstanding this, Callao has a bad reputation for fevers and contagious diseases, chiefly because of its insanitary condition. Its noteworthy public buildings are the custom-house and its storehouses which occupy the old quadrangular fortress built by the Spanish government between 1770 and 1775, and cover 15 acres, the prefecture, the military and naval offices and barracks, the post-office, three Catholic churches, a hospital, market, three clubs and some modern commercial houses. The present city is half a mile north of the site of the old town, which was destroyed by an earthquake and tidal wave in 1746. For a short time the commercial interests of the stricken city centred at Bellavista, ij m. east, where wheat granaries were built and still remain, but later the greater convenience of a waterside site drew the merchants and population back to the vicinity of the submerged town. The importance of Callao in colonial times, when it was the only open port south of Panama, did not continue under the new political order, because of the unsettled state of public affairs and the loss of its monopoly. This decline in its prosperity was checked, and the modern development of the port began, when a railway was built from Callao into the heart of the Andes, and Callao is now an important factor in the development of copper-mining. The port is connected with Lima by two railways and an electric tramway, with Oroya by railway 138 m. long, and with Cerro de Pasco by railway 221 m. A short railway also runs from the port to the Bellavista storehouses. The port is provided with modern harbour improvements, consisting of sea-walls of concrete blocks, two fine docks with berthing spaces for 30 large vessels, and a large floating-dock (300 ft. long on the blocks and capable of receiving vessels up to 21 ft. draught and 5000 tons weight), which was built in Glasgow and was sent out to Callao in 1863. The docks are provided with gas and electric lights, 18 steam cranes for loading and discharging vessels, a triple line of railway and a supply of fresh water. Callao was formerly the head- quarters in South America of the Pacific Steam Navigation Co., Ltd. (incorporated 1840), but Valparaiso now occupies that position. There are, owing perhaps to the proximity of Lima, few industrial establishments in the city; among them are a large sugar refinery, some flour-mills, a brewery, a factory for making effervescent drinks, and a number of foundries and repair shops. Being a port of the first class, Callao is an im- portant distributing centre for the coasting trade, in which a large number of small vessels are engaged. The foreign steam- ship companies making it a regular port of call are the Pacific Steam Navigation Co. (British), the Compania Sud-America (Chilean), the Kosmosand Roland lines (German), the Merchants line (New York), and a Japanese line from the ports of Japan and China. A subsidized Peruvian line is also contemplated to ply between the Pacific ports of South America with an eventual extension of the service to Europe. The arrivals from and clearances for foreign ports in 1907 were as follows: — Arrivals Clearances Steamers. Sailing Vessels. No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. 5i8 937,302 924 174,165 5>7 937,706 931 163,365 CALLCOTT— CALLIAS AND HIPPONICUS The exports from Callao are guano, sugar, cotton, wool, hides, silver, copper, gold and forest products, and the imports include timber and other building materials, cotton and other textiles, general merchandise for personal, household and industrial uses, railway material, coal, kerosene, wheat, flour and other food stuffs. The maintenance of peace and order, and the mining development of the interior, have added to the trade and pros- perity of the port. The history of Callao has been exceptionally eventful. It was founded in 1537, two years after Pizarro had founded Lima. As the port of that capital and the only open port below Panama it grew rapidly in importance and wealth. It was raised to the dignity of a city in 1671. The appearance of Sir Francis Drake in the bay in 1578 led to the fortification of the port, which proved strong enough to repel an attack by the Dutch in 1624. The city was completely destroyed and partly submerged by the great earthquake of the 28th of October 1746, in which about 6000 persons perished. The new city was strongly fortified and figured prominently in the struggle for independence, and also in the various revolutions which have convulsed the republic. Its political autonomy dates from 1836, when it was made a coast department. The Callao fortifications were bombarded by a Spanish fleet under Admiral Mendez Nunez on the 2nd of May 1866, when there were heavy losses both in lives and material. Again, in 1880, the city was bombarded by the Chileans, though it was almost defenceless, and fell into the possession of the invaders after the capture of Lima in the following year. Before the surrender all the Peruvian naval vessels in the harbour were sunk, to prevent their falling into the possession of the enemy. CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL (1770-1844), English landscape painter, was born at Kensington in 1779 and died there in 1844. His first study was music; and he sang for several years in the choir of Westminster Abbey. But at the age of twenty he had determined to give up music, and had exhibited his first painting at the Royal Academy. He gradually rose to distinction, and was elected an associate in 1807 and an aca- demician in 1 8 10. In 1827 he received the honour of knighthood; and, seven years later, was appointed surveyor of the royal pictures. His two principal subject pictures — " Raphael and the Fornarina," and " Milton dictating to his Daughters," are much inferior to his landscapes, which are placed in the highest class by their refined taste and quiet beauty. His wife, MARIA, Lady Callcott (1786-1844), whom he married in 1827, was a daughter of Admiral Dundas and widow of Captain Thomas Graham, R.N. (d. 1822). With her first husband she travelled in India, South Africa and South America, where she acted for some time as teacher of Donna Maria, who became queen of Portugal in 1826; and in the company of her second husband she spent much time in the south of Europe. She published accounts of her visits to India (1812), and to the environs of Rome (1820); Memoirs of Poussin (1820); a History of France; a History of Spain (1828); Essays toward a History of Painting (1836); Little Arthur's History of England (1836); and the Scripture Herbal (1842). CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL (1766-1821), English musician, brother of Sir Augustus Callcott, was born at Kensington on the 2oth of November 1766. At the age of seven he was sent to a neighbouring day-school, where he continued for five years, studying chiefly Latin and Greek. During this time he frequently went to Kensington church, in the repairs of which his father was employed, and the impression he received on hearing the organ of that church seems to have roused his love for music. The organist at that time was Henry Whitney, from whom Callcott received his first musical instruction. He did not, however, choose music as a profession, as he wished to become a surgeon. But on witnessing a surgical operation he found his nervous system so seriously affected by the sight, that he determined to devote himself to music. His intimacy with Dr Arnold and other leading musicians of the day procured him access to artistic circles; he was deputy organist at St George the Martyr, Queen Square, Bloomsbury, from 1783 to 1785, in which year his success- ful competition for three out of the four prize medals offered by the " Catch Club " soon spread his reputation as composer of glees, catches, canons and other pieces of concerted vocal music. The compositions with which he won these medals were — the catch " O beauteous fair," the canon " Blessed is he," and the glee " Dull repining sons of care." In these and other similar compositions he displays considerable skill and talent, and some of his glees retain their popularity at the present day. In 1787 Callcott helped Dr Arnold and others to form the " Glee Club." In 1 789 he became one of the two organists at St Paul's, Covent Garden, and from 1793 to 1802 he was organist to the Asylum for Female Orphans. As an instrumental composer Callcott never succeeded, not even after he had taken lessons from Haydn. But of far greater importance than his compositions are his theoretical writings. His Musical' Grammar, published in 1806 (3rd ed., 1817), was long considered the standard English work of musical instruction, and in spite of its being antiquated when compared with modern standards, it remains a scholarly and lucid treatment of the rudiments of the art. Callcott was a much-esteemed teacher of music for many years. In 1800 he took his degree of Mus.D. at Oxford, where fifteen years earlier he had received his degree of bachelor of music, and in 1805 he succeeded Dr Crotch as musical lecturer at the Royal Institution. Towards the end of his life his artistic career was twice interrupted by the failure of his mental powers. He died at Bristol after much suffering on the isth of May 1821. A posthumous collection of his most favourite vocal pieces was published in 1824 with a memoir of his life by his son-in-law, William Horsley, himself a composer of note. Callcott's son, WILLIAM HUTCHINS CALLCOTT (1807-1882), in- herited to a large extent the musical gifts of his father. His song, " The last man," and his anthem, " Give peace in our time, O Lord," were his best-known compositions. CALLIAS, tyrant of Chalcis in Euboea. With the assistance of Philip II. of Macedon, which he hoped to obtain, he contem- plated the subjugation of the whole island. But finding that Philip was unwilling to help him, Callias had recourse to the Athenians, although he had previously (350 B.C.) been engaged in hostilities with them. With the support of Demosthenes, he was enabled to conclude an alliance with Athens, and the tribute formerly paid by Eretria and Oreus to Athens was handed over to him. But his plan of uniting the whole of Euboea under his rule, with Chalcis as capital, was frustrated by Philip, who set up tyrants chosen by himself at Eretria and Oreus. Subsequently, when Philip's attention was engaged upon Thrace, the Athenians in conjunction with Callias drove out these tyrants, and Callias thus became master of the island (Demosthenes, De Pace, p. 58; Epistola Philippi, p. 159; Diod. Sic. xvi. 74). At the end of his life he appears to have lived at Athens, and Demosthenes pro- posed to confer the citizenship upon him (Aeschines, Contra Clesiphontem, 85, 87). CALLIAS and HIPPONICUS, two names borne alternately by the heads of a wealthy and distinguished Athenian family. During the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. the office of daduchus or torch-bearer at the Eleusinian mysteries was the hereditary privilege of the family till its extinction. The following members deserve mention. 1. CALLIAS, the second of the name, fought at the battle of Marathon (490) in priestly attire. Some time after the death of Cimon, probably about 445 B.C., he was sent to Susa to conclude with Artaxerxes, king of Persia, a treaty of peace afterwards misnamed the " peace of Cimon." Cimon had nothing to do with it, and he was totally opposed to the idea of peace with Persia (see CIMON). At all events Callias's mission does not seem to have been successful; he was indicted for high treason on his return to Athens and sentenced to a fine of fifty talents. See Herodotus vii. 151; Diod. Sic. xii. 4; Demosthenes, De Falsa Legatione, p. 428; Grote recognizes the treaty as a historical fact, History of Greece, ch. xlv., while Curtius, bk. iii.ch. ii., denies the conclusion of any formal treaty; see also Ed. Meyer, Forschungen, ii. ; J. B. Bury in Hermathena, xxiv. (1898). 2. HIPPONICUS, son of the above. Together with Eurymedon he commanded the Athenian forces in the incursion into Boeotian territory (426 B.C.) and was slain at the battle of Delium (424). CALLIMACHUS— CALLISTO 57 His wife, whom he divorced, subsequently became the wife of Pericles; one of his daughters, Hipparete, married Alcibiades; another, the wife of Theodorus, was the mother of the orator 1 socrates. See Thucydidcs iii. 91; Diod. Sic. xii. 65; Andocides, Contra AliibijJrm, 13. 3. CALLUS, son of the above, the black sheep of the family, was notorious for his profligacy and extravagance, and was ridiculed by the comic poets as an example of a degenerate Athenian (Aristophanes, Frogs, 429, Birds, 283, and schol. Andocides, De Mystfriis, 110-131). The scene of Xenophon's Symposium and Plato's Protagoras was laid at his house. He was reduced to a state of absolute poverty and, according to Aelian ( Var. Hist. iv. 23), committed suicide, but there is no confirmation of this. In spite of his dissipated life he played a certain part in public affairs. In 302 he was in command of the Athenian hoplites at Corinth, when the Spartans were defeated by Iphicrates. In 371 he was at the head of the embassy sent to make terms with Sparta. The peace which was the result was called after him the " peace of Callias." See Xenophon, Hellenica, iv. 5, vi. 3 ; and DELIAN LEAGUE. CALLIMACHUS, an Athenian sculptor of the second half of the 5th century B.C. Ancient critics associate him with Calamis, whose relative he may have been. He is given credit for two inventions, the Corinthian column and the running borer for drilling marble. The most certain facts in regard to him are that he sculptured some dancing Laconian maidens, and made a golden lamp for the Erechtheum (about 408 B.C.); and that he used to spoil his works by over-refinement and excessive labour. CALLIMACHUS, Greek poet and grammarian, a native of Cyrene and a descendant of the illustrious house of the Battiadae, flourished about 250 B.C. He opened a school in the suburbs of Alexandria, and some of the most distinguished grammarians and poets were his pupils. He was subsequently appointed by Ptolemy Philadelphus chief librarian of the Alexandrian library, which office he held till his death (about 240). His Pinakes (tablets), in 120 books, a critical and chronologically arranged catalogue of the library, laid the foundation of a history of Greek literature. According to Suidas, he wrote about 800 works, in verse and prose; of these only six hymns, sixty-four epigrams and some fragments are extant; a considerable fragment of the Hecate, an idyllic epic, has also been discovered in the Rainer papyri (see Kenyon in Classical Review, November 1803). His Coma Berenices is only known from the celebrated imitation of Catullus. His Ailia (causes) was a collection of elegiac poems in four books, dealing with the foundation of cities, religious ceremonies and other customs. According to Quintili.in (Inslit. x. i. 58) he was the chief of the elegiac poets; his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans, and imitated by Ovid, Catullus and especially Propertius. The extant hymns are extremely learned, and written in a laboured and artificial style. The epigrams, some of the best specimens of their kind, have been incorporated in the Greek Anthology. Art and learn- ing arc his chief characteristics, unrelieved by any real poetic genius; in the words of Ovid (Amores, i. 15) — " Quamvis ingcnio non valet, arte valet." EDITIONS. — Hymns, epigrams and fragments (the last collected by Bentlcy) by J. A. Erncsti (1761), and O. Schneider (1870-1873) (with elaborate indices and excursuses); hymns and epigrams, by A. Meineke(l86l),and t'. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff (1897). SeeMrwe Brufhstutke am tier Hekale des Kallimachus, by T. Gomperz (1893) ; also G. Knaack, CaUimachea (1896); A. Beltrami, GV Inni di Calli- macho e il Nome di Terpandro (1896) ; K. Kuiper, Studia CaUimachea (1896); A. Hamctte, Les Epigrammes de CaUimaque: etude critique ft littfraire (Paris, 1907). There are English translations (verse) by W. Dodd (1755) and H. VV. Tytler (1793) : (jw»«e) by J. Banks (1856). See also Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. i. (ed. 1906), p. 122. CALLINUS of Ephesus, the oldest of the Greek elegiac poets and the creator of the political and warlike elegy. He is supposed to have flourished between the invasion of Asia Minor by the Cimmerii and their expulsion by Alyattes (630-560 B.C.). During his lifetime his own countrymen were also engaged in a life-and- death struggle with the Magnesians. These two events give the key to his poetry, in which he endeavours to rouse the indolent lonians to a sense of patriotism. Only scanty ftagments of his poems remain; the longest of these (preserved in Stobaeus, Florilegium, li. 19) has even been ascribed to Tyrtacus. Edition of the fragments by N. Bach (1831), and in Bcrgk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci (1882). On the date of Callmus, see the histories of Greek literature by Mure and Miiller; G. H. Bode, Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkunst, ii. pt. i. (1838); and G. Geiger, De Callini Aetate (1877), who places him earlier, about 642. CALLIOPE, the muse of epic poetry, so named from the sweet- ness of her vioce (Gr. /cdXXos, beauty; &$, voice). In Hesiod she was the last of the nine sisters, but yet enjoyed a supremacy over the others. (See also MUSES, THE.) CALLIRRHOE, in Greek legend, second daughter of the river- god Achelous and wife of Alcmaeon (?.».). At her earnest request her husband induced Phegeus, king of Psophis in Arcadia, and the father of his first wife Arsinoe' ('or Alphesiboea), to hand over to him the necklace and peplus (robe) of Harmonia (q.v.), that he might dedicate them at Delphi to complete the cure of his madness. When Phegeus discovered that they were really meant for Callirrhoe, he gave orders for Alcmaeon to be waylaid and killed (Apollodorus iii. 7, 2. 5-7; Thucydides ii. 102). Callirrhoe now implored the gods that her two young sons might grow to manhood at once and avenge their father's death. This was granted, and her sons Amphoterus and Acarnan slew Phegeus with his two sons, and returning with the necklace and peplus dedicated them at Delphi (Ovid, Metam. ix. 413). CALLISTHENES (c. 360-3 28 B.C.), of Olynthus, Greek historian, a relative and pupil of Aristotle, through whose recommendation he was appointed to attend Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition. He censured Alexander's adoption of oriental customs, inveighing especially against the servile ceremony of adoration. Having thereby greatly offended the king, he was accused of being privy to a treasonable conspiracy and thrown into prison, where he died from torture or disease. His melan- choly end was commemorated in a special treatise (KaXXttr&njs fi Trtpi irivBoix) by his friend Theophrastus, whose acquaint- ance he made during a visit to Athens. Callisthenes wrote an account of Alexander's expedition, a history of Greece from the peace of Antalcidas (387) to the Phocian war (357), a history of the Phocian war and other works, all of which have perished. The romantic life of Alexander, the basis of all the Alexander legends of the middle ages, originated during the time of the Ptolemies, but in its present form belongs to the 3rd century A.D. Its author is usually known as pseudo-Callis- thenes, although in the Latin translation by Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius (beginning of the 4th century) it is ascribed to a certain Aesopus; Aristotle, Antisthenes, Onesicritus and Arrian have also been credited with the authorship. There are also Syrian, Armenian and Slavonic versions, in addition to four Greek versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the middle ages (see Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, 1897, p. 849). Valerius's translation was completely superseded by that of Leo, arch-priest of Naples in the loth century, the so- called Historia de Preliis. See Scriptores rerum Alexandra Magni (by C. W. Miiller, in the Didot edition of Arrian, 1846), containing the genuine fragments and the text of the pseudo-Callisthenes, with notes and introduc- tion; A. Westermann, De Callisthene Olynthio et Pseudo-Callisthene Commenlalio (1838-1842); J. Zacher, Pseudo-Callisthenes (1867); W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898), pp. 363, 819; article by Edward Meyer in Ersch and Grubcr's Allgemeine Ency- klopddie; A. Ausfeld, Zur Kritik des griechischen Alexanderromans (Bruchsal, 1894); Plutarch, Alexander, 52-55; Arrian, Anab. iv. 10- 14; Diog. Laertius v. i; Quintus Curtius viii. 5-8; Suidas s.v. See also ALEXANDER THE GREAT (ad fin.). For the Latin trans- lations see TeurTcl-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), §399: and M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Lilteralur, iv. i.,p. 43. CALLISTO, in Greek mythology, an'Arcadian nymph, daughter of Lycaon and companion of Artemis. She was transformed into a bear as a penalty for having borne to Zeus a son, Areas, the ancestor of the Arcadians. Hera, Zeus and Artemis are all mentioned as the authors of the transformation. Areas, when hunting, encountered the bear Callisto, and would have shot her, had not Zeus with swift wind carried up both to the skies, where he placed them as a constellation. In another version, she was CALLISTRATUS— CALLOVIAN slain by Artemis. Callisto was originally only an epithet of th Arcadian Artemis herself. See Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, Melam. ii. 381-530; R. Franz, D Callistus fabula (1890), which deals exhaustively with the variou forms of the legend. CALLISTRATUS, Alexandrian grammarian, flourished at thi beginning of the 2nd century B.C. He was one of the pupils o_ Aristophanes of Byzantium, who were distinctively callec Aristophanei. Callistratus chiefly devoted himself to the elucidation of the Greek poets; a few fragments of his com mentaries have been preserved in the various collections o scholia and in Athenaeus. He was also the author of a miscel laneous work called Su/i/iiwa, used by the later lexicographers and of a treatise on courtesans (Athenaeus iii. 125 B, xiii. 591 D) He is not to be confused with Callistratus, the pupil and successor of Isocrates and author of a history of Heraclea in Pontus. See R. Schmidt, De Callistrato Aristophaneo, appended to A. Nauck's Aristophanis Byzantii Fragments (1848); also C. W Miiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iv. p. 353 note. CALLISTRATUS, an Athenian poet, only known as the author of a hymn in honour of Harmodius (etween Trouville and Dives, where the marls and clays are 200 ft. thick. In the Ardennes clays bearing pyrites and oolitic imonite are about 30 ft. thick. Around Poitiers the Callovian s 100 ft. thick, but the formation thins in the direction of the 'ura. Clays and shales with ferruginous oolites represent theCallovian 'f Germany; while in Russia the deposits of this age are mainly irgillaceous. In North America Callovian fossils are found in California; in South America in Bolivia. In Africa they have >een found in Algeria and Morocco, in Somaliland and Zanzibar, nd on the west coast of Madagascar. In India they are CALM— CALOMEL 59 represented by the shales and limestones of tho Chari series of Cutih. Calloviun rocks are also recorded from New Guinea and the Moluccas. Sec JURASSIC; also A. dc Lapparent. Traite de gfologif. vol. ii. (5th ed.. 1906), and H. U. Woodward, "Tho Jurassic- Rooks of Britain." JJem. Ced. Sunty, vol. v. (J- A. H.) CALM, an adjective meaning peaceful, quiet; particularly used of the weather, free from wind or storm, or of the sea, opposed to rough. The word appears in French culme, through which it came into English, in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian calm authorities follow Dicz (Etym. Worterbuch der romanisckfn SprMhat) in tracing the origin to the Low Latin cauma. an adaptation of Greek xaO/ia, burning heat, Kaitiv, to burn. The Portuguese calma has this meaning as well as that of quiet. The connexion would be heat of the day, rest during that period, so quiet, rest, peacefulness. The insertion of the /, which in English pronunciation disappears, is probably due to the Latin color, heat, with which the word was associated. CALMET, ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (1672-1757), French Bene- dictine, was born at Mesnil-la-Horgne on the z6th of February 1672. At the age of seventeen he joined the Benedictine order, and in 1608 was appointed to teach theology and philosophy at the abbey of Moyen-Moutier. He was successively prior at Lay, abbot at Nancy and of Senones in Lorraine. He died in Paris on the .'5th of October 1757. The erudition of Calmet's exegeti- cal writings won him a reputation that was not confined to the Roman Catholic Church, but they have failed to stand the test of modern scholarship. The most noteworthy are: — Commentaire de la Bible (Paris, 23vo\s.,iio?-iji6), and Dittionnaireliisiorique, liographique, critique, chronologique ct lilteral de la Bible (Paris, 3 vols., 1720). These and numerous other works and editions of the Bible are known only to students, but as a pioneer in a branch of Biblical study which received a wide development in the loth century, Calmet is worthy of remembrance. As a histori- cal writer he is best known by his Histoire eccltsiastiqite et civile de la Lorraine (Nancy, 1728), founded on original research and various useful works on Lorraine, of which a full list is given in Vigouroux's Diclionnaire de la Bible. See A. Digit, Notice biographique et lilteraire sur Dom Angus/in Calmet (Nancy, 1860). CALNE. a market town and municipal borough in the Chippcn- ham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 99 m. west of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3457. Area, 356 acres. It lies in the valley of the Calne, and is sur- rounded by the high table-land of Salisbury Plain and the Marlborough Downs. The church of St Mark has a nave with double aisles, and massive late Norman pillars and arches. The tower, which fell in 1628, was perhaps rebuilt by Inigo Jones. Other noteworthy buildings are a grammar school, founded by John Bentley in 1660, and the town-hall. Bacon-curing is the staple industry, and there are flour, flax and paper mills. The manufacture of broadcloth, once of great importance, is almost extinct. Calne is governed by a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. In the loth century Calne (Canna, Koine) was the site of a palace of the West-Saxon kings. Calne was the scene of the synod of 978 when, during the discussion of the question of celibacy, the floor suddenly gave way beneath the councillors, leaving Archbishop Dunstan alone standing upon a beam. Here also a witenagemot was summoned in 997. In the Domes- day Survey Calne appears as a royal borough; it comprised forty-seven burgesses and was not assessed in hides. In 1565 the borough possessed a gild merchant, at the head of which were two gild stewards. Calne claimed to have received a charter from Stephen and a confirmation of the same from Henry III., but no record of these is extant, and the charter actually issued to the borough by James II. in 1687 apparently never came into force. The borough returned two members to parliament more or less irregularly from the first parliament of Edward I. until the Reform Bill of 1832. From this date the borough returned one member only until, by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, the privilege was annulled. In 1303 Lodovicus de Bello Monte, prebendary of Salisbury, obtained a grant of a Saturday market at the manor of Calne, and a three days' fair at the feast of St Mary Magdalene; the latter was only abandoned in the iQth century. Calne was formerly one of the chief centres of cloth manufacture in the west of England, but the industry is extinct. CALOMEL, a drug consisting of mercurous chloride, mercury subchloride, HgjClj, which occurs in nature us the mineral horn-quicksilver, found as translucent crystals belonging to the tetragonal system, with an adamantine lustre, and a dirty white grey or brownish colour. The chief localities are Idria, Ober- moschel, Horowitz in Bavaria and Almaden in Spain. It was used in medicine as early as the i6th century under the names Draco mitigatus, Manna metallorum, A quila alba, Mcrciirius diilcis ; later it became known as calomel, a name probably derived from the Greek xaXos, beautiful, and /^Xas, black, in allusion to its blackening by ammonia, or from «a\6s and ^i«Xi, honey, from its sweet taste. It may be obtained by heating mercury in chlorine, or by reducing mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) with mercury or sulphurous acid. It is manufactured by heating a mixture of mercurous sulphate and common salt in iron retorts, and condensing the sublimed calomel in brick chambers. In the wet way it is obtained by precipitating a mercurous salt with hydrochloric acid. Calomel is a white powder which sublimes at a low red heat; it is insoluble in water, alcohol and ether. Boiling with stannous chloride solution reduces it to the metal; digestion with potassium iodide gives mercurous iodide. Nitric acid oxidizes it to mercuric nitrate, while potash or soda decomposes it into mercury and oxygen. Long continued boiling with water gives mercury and mercuric chloride; dilute hydrochloric acid or solutions of alkaline chlorides convert it into mercuric chloride on long boiling. The molecular weight of mercurous chloride has given occasion for much discussion. E. Mitscherlich determined the vapour density to be 8-3 (air = i), corresponding to HgCl. The supporters of the formula Hg2Cl2 pointed out that dissociation into mercury and mercuric chloride would give this value, since mercury is a monatomic element. After contradictory evidence as to whether dissociation did or did not occur, it was finally shown by Victor Meyer and W. Harris (1894) that a rod moistened with potash and inserted in the vapour was coloured yellow, and so con- clusively proved dissociation. A. Werner determined the mole- cular weights of mercurous, cuprous and silver bromides, iodides and chlorides in pyridine solution, and obtained results point- ing to the formula HgCl, etc. However, the double formula, HgjCl", has been completely established by H. B. Baker (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, p. 646) by vapour density determinations of the absolutely dry substance. Calomel possesses certain special properties and uses in medicine which are dealt with here as a supplement to the general discussion of the pharmacology and therapeutics of mercury (q.v.). Calomel exerts remote actions in the form of mercuric chloride. The specific value of mercurous chloride is that it exerts the valuable properties of mercuric chloride in the safest and least irritant manner, as the active salt is continuously and freshly generated in small quantities. Its pharmacopeial preparations are the " Black wash," in which calomel and lime react to form mcrcurous oxide, a pill still known as " Plummer's pill " and an ointment. Externally the salt has not any par- ticular advantage over other mercurial compounds, despite the existence of the official ointment. Internally the salt is given in doses — for an adult of from one-half to five grains. It is an admirable aperient, acting especially on the upper part of the intestinal canal, and causing a slight increase of intestinal secretion. The stimulant action occurring high up in the canal (duodenum and jejunum), it is well to follow a dose of calomel with a saline purgative a few hours afterwards. The special value of the drug as an aperient depends on its antiseptic power and its stimulation of the liver. The stools are dark green, containing calomel, mercuric sulphide and bile which, owing to the antiseptic action, has not been decomposed. The salt is often used in the treatment of syphilis, but is probably less useful than certain other mercurial compounds. It is also employed for 6o CALONNE— CALORIMETRY fumigation; the patient sits naked with a blanket over him, on a cane-bottomed chair, under which twenty grains of calomel are volatilized by a spirit-lamp; in about twenty minutes the calomel is effectually absorbed by the skin. CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE (1734-1802), French statesman, was born at Douai of a good family. He entered the profession of the law, and became in succession advocate to the general council of Artois, procureur to the parlement of Douai, master of requests, then intendant of Metz (1768) and of Lille (1774). He seems to have been a man of great business capacity, gay and careless in temperament, and thoroughly unscrupulous in political action. In the terrible crisis of affairs preceding the French Revolution, when minister after minister tried in vain to replenish the exhausted royal treasury and was dismissed for want of success, Calonne was summoned to take the general control of affairs. He assumed office on the 3rd of November 1783. He owed the position to Vergennes, who for three years and a half continued to support him; but the king was not well disposed towards him, and, according to the testimony of the Austrian ambassador, his reputation with the public was ex- tremely poor. In taking office he found " 600 millions to pay and neither money nor credit." At first he attempted to develop the latter, and to carry on the government by means of loans in such a way as to maintain public confidence in its solvency. In October 1785 he recoined the gold coinage, and he developed the caisse d' escompte. But these measures failing, he proposed to the king the suppression of internal customs, duties and the taxation of the property of nobles and clergy. Turgot and Necker had attempted these reforms, and Calonne attributed their failure to the malevolent criticism of the parlements. Therefore he had an assembly of " notables " called together in January 1787. Before it he exposed the deficit in the treasury, and proposed the establishment of a subvention territorial, which should be levied on all property without distinction. This suppression of privileges was badly received by the privileged notables. Calonne, angered, printed his reports and so alienated the court. Louis XVI. dismissed him on the 8th of April 1787 and exiled him to Lorraine. The joy was general in Paris, where Calonne, accused of wishing to augment the imposts, was known as " Monsieur Deficit." In reality his audacious plan of reforms, which Necker took up later, might have saved the monarchy had it been firmly seconded by the king. Calonne soon afterwards passed over to England, and during his residence there kept up a polemical correspondence with Necker on the finances. In 1789, when the states-general were about to assemble, he crossed over to Flanders in the hope of being allowed to offer himself for election, but he was sternly forbidden to enter France. In revenge he joined the tmigri party at Coblenz, wrote in their favour, and expended nearly all the fortune brought him by his wife, a wealthy widow. In 1802, having again taken up his abode in London, he received permission from Napoleon to return to France. He died on the 3oth of October 1802, about a month after his arrival in his native country. See Ch. Gomel, Les Causes financiers de la Revolution (Paris, 1893) ; R. Stourm, Les Finances de I'ancien regime el de la Revolution (2 vols., Paris, 1885); Susane, La Tactique financ&re de Calonne, with biblio- graphy (Paris, 1902). CALORESCENCE (from the Lat. color, heat), a term invented by John Tyndall to describe an optical phenomenon, the essential feature of which is the conversion of rays belonging to the dark infra-red portion of the spectrum into the more refrangible visible rays, i.e. heat rays into rays of light. Such a transformation had not previously been observed, although the converse pheno- menon, i.e. the conversion of short waves of light into longer or less refrangible waves, had been shown by Sir G. G. Stokes to occur in fluorescent bodies. Tyndall's experiments, however, were carried out on quite different lines, and have nothing to do with fluorescence (q.v.). His method was to sift out the long dark waves which are associated with the short visible waves constituting the light of the sun or of the electric arc and to concentrate the former to a focus. If the eye was placed at the focus, no sensation of light was observed, although small pieces of charcoal or blackened platinum foil were immediately raised to incandescence, thus giving rise to visible rays. The experiment is more easily carried out with the electric light than with sunlight, as the former contains a smaller pro- portion of visible rays. According to Tyndall, 90% of the radiation from the electric arc is non-luminous. The arc being struck in the usual way between two carbons, a concave mirror, placed close behind it, caused a large part of the radiation to be directed through an aperture in the camera and concentrated to a focus outside. In front of the aperture were placed a plate of transparent rock-salt, and a flat cell of thin glass containing a solution of iodine in carbon bisulphide. Both rock-salt and carbon bisulphide are extremely transparent to the luminous and also to the infra-red rays The iodine in the solution, however, has the property of absorbing the luminous rays, while transmitting the infra-red rays copiously, so that in sufficient thicknesses the solution appears nearly black. Owing to the inflammable nature of carbon bisulphide, the plate of rock-salt was found to be hardly a sufficient protection, and Tyndall surrounded the iodine cell with an annular vessel through which cold water was made to flow. Any small body which was a good absorber of dark rays was rapidly heated to redness when placed at the focus. Platinized platinum (platinum foil upon which a thin film of platinum had been deposited electrolytically) and charcoal were rendered incandescent, black paper and matches immediately inflamed, ordinary brown paper pierced and burned, while thin white blotting-paper, owing to its transparency to the invisible rays, was scarcely tinged. A simpler arrange- ment, also employed by Tyndall, is to cause the rays to be re- flected outwards parallel to one another, and to concentrate them by means of a small flask, containing the iodine solution and used as a lens, placed some distance from the camera. The rock-salt and cold water circulation can then be dispensed with. Since the rays used by Tyndall in these experiments are similar to those emitted by a heated body which is not hot enough to be luminous, it might be thought that the radiation, say from a hot kettle, could be concentrated to a focus and employed to render a small body luminous. It would , however, be impossible by su ch means to raise the receiving body to a higher temperature than the source of radiation. For it is easy to see that if, by means of lenses of rock-salt or mirrors, we focused all or nearly all the rays from a small surface on to another surface of equal area, this would not raise the temperature of the second surface above that of the first; and we could not obtain a greater concentration of rays from a large heated surface, since we could not have all parts of the surface simultaneously in focus. The desired result could be obtained if it were possible, by reflection or otherwise, to cause two different rays to unite without loss and pursue a common path. Such a result must be regarded as impossible of attain- ment, as it would imply the possibility of heat passing from one body to another at a higher temperature, contrary to the second law of thermodynamics (q.v.). Tyndall used the dark rays from a luminous source, which are emitted in a highly concentrated form, so that it was possible to obtain a high temperature, which was, however, much lower than that of the source. A full account of Tyndall's experiments will be found in his Heat, a Mode of Motion. (J. R. C.) CALORIMETRY, the scientific name for the measurement of quantities of heat (Lat. calor), to be distinguished from ther- mometry, which signifies the measurement of temperature. A calorimeter is any piece of apparatus in which heat is measured. This distinction of meaning is purely a matter of convention, but it is very rigidly observed. Quantities of heat may be measured indirectly in a variety of ways in terms of the different effects of heat on material substances. The most important of these effects are (a) rise of temperature, (6) change of state, (c) trans- formation of energy. § i. The rise of temperature of a body, when heat is imparted to it, is found to be in general nearly proportional to the quantity of heat added. The thermal capacity of a body is measured by the quantity of heat required to raise its temperature one degree, and is necessarily proportional to the mass of the body for bodies CALORIMETRY 61 of the same substance under similar conditions. The sptdji( ktat of a substance is sometimes defined as the thermal capacity of unit mass, but more often as the ratio of the thermal capacity of unit mass of the substance to that of unit mass of water at some standard temperature. The two definitions are identical, provided that the thermal capacity of unit mass of water, at a standard temperature, is taken as the unit of heat. But the specific heat of water is often stated in terms of other units. In any case it is necessary to specify the temperature, and sometimes also the pressure, since the specific heat of a substance generally depends to some extent on the external conditions. The methods of measurement, founded on rise of temperature, may be classed as tktrmvmetric methods, since they depend on the observation of change of temperature with a thermometer. The most familiar of these are the method of mixture and the method of cooling. ( 2. The Method of Mixture consists in imparting the quantity of heat to be measured to a known mass of water, or some other standard substance, contained in a vessel or calorimeter of known thermal capacity, and in observing the rise of temperature pro- duced, from which data the quantity of heat may be found as explained in all elementary text-books. This method is the most generally convenient and most readily applicable of calorimetric methods, but it is not always the most accurate, for various reasons. Some heat is generally lost in transferring the heated body to the calorimeter; this loss may be minimized by performing the trans- ference rapidly, but it cannot be accurately calculated or eliminated. Some heat is lost when the calorimeter is raised above the tempera- ture of its enclosure, and before the final temperature is reached. This can be roughly estimated by observing the rate of change of temperature before and after the experiment, and assuming that the loss of heat is directly proportional to the duration of the experiment and to the average excess of temperature. It can be minimized by making the mixing as rapid as possible, and by using a large calori- meter, so that the excess of temperature is always small. The latter method was generally adopted by J. P. Joule, but the rise of tem- perature is then difficult to measure with accuracy, since it is neces- sarily reduced in nearly the same proportion as the correction. There is, however, the advantage that the correction is rendered much less uncertain by this procedure, since the assumption that the loss of heat is proportional to the temperature-excess is only true for small differences of temperature. Rumford proposed to eliminate this correction by starting with the initial temperature of the calorimeter as much below that of its enclosure as the final temperature was expected to be above the same limit. This method has been very generally recommended, but it is really bad, because, although it diminishes the absolute magnitude of the correction, it greatly increases the uncertainty of it and therefore the probable error of the result. The coefficient of heating of a calorimeter when it is below the temperature of its surroundings is seldom, if ever, the same as the coefficient of cooling at the higher temperature, since the convection currents, which do most of the heating or cooling, are rarely symmetrical in the two cases, and moreover, the duration of the two stages is seldom the same. In any case, it is desirable to diminish the loss of heat as much as possible by polishing the exterior of the calorimeter to diminish radiation, and by suspending it by non-conducting supports, inside a polished case, to protect it from draughts. It is also very important to keep the surrounding condi- tions as constant as possible throughout the experiment. This may be secured by using a large water-bath to surround the apparatus, but in experiments of long duration it is necessary to use an accurate temperature regulator. The method of lagging the calorimeter with cotton-wool or other non-conductors, which is often recommended, diminishes the loss of heat considerably, but renders it very uncertain and variable, and should never be used in work of precision. The bad conductors take so long to reach a steady state that the rate of loss of heat at any moment depends on the past history more than on the temperature of the calorimeter at the moment. A more serious objection to the use of lagging of this kind is the danger of its absorb- ing moisture. The least trace of damp in the lagging, or of moisture condensed on the surface of the calorimeter, may produce serious low of beat by evaporation. This is another objection to Rumford's method of cooling the calorimeter below the surrounding temperature before starting. Among minor difficulties of the method may be mentioned the uncertainty of the thermal capacity of the calorimeter and stirrer, and of the immersed portion of the thermometer. This is generally calculated by assuming values for the specific heats of the materials obtained by experiment between 100" C. and 20° C. Since the specific .heats of most metals increase rapidly with rise of temperature, the values so obtained are generally too high. It is best to make this correction as small as possible by using a large calorimeter, so that the mass of water is large in proportion to that of metal. Analogous difficulties arise in the application of other calorimetric methods. The accuracy of the work in each case depends principally on the skill and ingenuity of the experimentalist in devising methods of eliminating the various sources of error. The form of apparatus usually adopted for the method of mixtures is that of Rcgnault with slight modifications, and figures and des- criptions are given in all the text-books. Among special methods which have been subsequently developed there are two which deserve mention as differing in principle from the common type. These are (i) the constant temperature method, (2) the continuous flow method. The constant temperature method of mixtures was proposed by N. Hesehus (Jour. Phys., 1888, vii. p. 489). Cold water at a known FIG. i. temperature is added to the calorimeter, immediately after dropping in the heated substance, at such a rate as to keep the temperature of the calorimeter constant, thus eliminating the corrections for the water equivalent of the calorimeter and the external loss of heat. The calorimeter is surrounded by an air-jacket connected to a petroleum gauge which indicates any small change of temperature in the calorimeter, and enables the manipulator to adjust the supply of cold water to compensate it. The apparatus as arranged by F. A. Waterman is shown in fig. I (Physical Review, 1896, iv. p. 161). A is the calorimetric tube, B the air-jacket and L the gauge. His an electric heater for raising the body to a suitable temperature, which can swing into place directly over the calori- meter. W is a conical can containing water cooled by ice I nearly to o°, which is swung over the calori- meter as soon as the hot body has been introduced and the heater removed. The cold water flow is regulated by a tap S with a long handle O, and its temperature is taken by a delicate thermometer with its bulb at G. The method is interesting, but the manipulations and obser- vations involved are more troublesome than with the ordinary type of calori- meter, and it may be doubted whether any ad- vantage is gained in accuracy. The continuous flow method is specially applic- able to the important case of calorific value of gaseous fuel, where a large quan- tity of heat is continu- ously .generated at a nearly uniform rate by combustion. FIG. 2. Fig. 2 illustrates a recent type of gas calorimeter devised by C. V. Boys (Proc. R.S., 1906, A. 77, p. 122). The heated products of combustion from the burner B impinge on a metal box H, through which water is circulating, and then pass downwards and outwards through a spiral cooler which re- duces them practically to the atmospheric temperature. A steady stream of water enters the apparatus by the inflow thermometer O, CALORIMETRY flows through the spiral coolers N and M, and finally through the box H, where it is well mixed before passing the outflow thermometer P. As soon as a steady state is reached, the difference of temperature between the outflow and inflow thermometers, multiplied by the current of water in grammes per minute gives the heat per minute supplied by combustion. The gas current is simultaneously ob- served by a suitable meter, which, with subsidiary corrections for pressure, temperature, &c., gives the necessary data for deducing calorific value. A continuous flow calorimeter has been used by the writer for measuring quantities of heat conveyed by conduction (see CON- DUCTION OF HEAT), and also for determining the variation of the specific heat of water. In the latter case two steady currents of water at different temperatures, say o° and 100° are passed through an equalizer, and the resulting temperature measured without mixing the currents, which are then separately determined by weighing. This is a very good method of comparing the mean specific heats over two ranges of temperature such as 0-50, and 50-100, or 0-20 and 20-40, but it is not so suitable as the electric method described below for obtaining the actual specific heat at any point of the range. § 3. Method of Cooling. — A common example of this method is the determination of the specific heat of a liquid by filling a small calorimeter with the liquid, raising it to a convenient temperature, and then setting it to cool in an enclosure at a steady temperature, and observing the time taken to fall through a given range when the conditions have become fairly steady. The same calorimeter is afterwards filled with a known liquid, such as water, and the time of cooling is observed through the same range of temperature, in the same enclosure, under the same conditions. The ratio of the times of cooling is equal to the ratio of the thermal capacities of the calorimeter and its contents in the two cases. The advantage of the method is that there is no transference or mixture; the defect is that the whole measure- ment depends on the assumption that the rate of loss of heat is the same in the two cases, and that any variation in the con- ditions, or uncertainty in the rate of loss, produces its full effect in the result, whereas in the previous case it would only affect a small correction. Other sources of uncertainty are, that the rate of loss of heat generally depends to some extent on the rate of fall of temperature, and that it is difficult to take accurate observations on a rapidly falling thermometer. As the method is usually practised, the calorimeter is made very small, and the surface is highly polished to diminish radiation. It is better to use a fairly large calorimeter to diminish the rate of cooling and the uncertainty of the correction for the water equivalent. The surface of the calorimeter and the enclosure should be perma- nently blackened so as to increase the loss of heat by radiation as much as possible, as compared with the losses by convection and conduction, which are less regular. For accurate work it is essential that the liquid in the calorimeter should be continuously stirred, and also in the enclosure, the lid of which must be water- jacketed, and kept at the same steady temperature as the sides. When all these precautions are taken, the method loses most of the simplicity which is its chief advantage. It cannot be satis- factorily applied to the case of solids or powders, and is much less generally useful than the method of mixture. § 4. Method of Fusion. — The methods depending on change of state are theoretically the simplest, since they do not necessarily involve any reference to thermometry, and the corrections for external loss of heat and for the thermal capacity of the con- taining vessels can be completely eliminated. They nevertheless present peculiar difficulties and limitations, which render their practical application more troublesome and more uncertain than is usually supposed. They depend on the experimental fact that the quantity of heat required to produce a given change of state (e.g. to convert one gramme of ice at o° C. into water at o° C., or one gramme of water at 100° C. into steam at 100° C.) is always the same, and that there need be no change of temperature during the process. The difficulties arise in connexion with the deter- mination of the quantities of ice melted or steam condensed, and in measuring the latent heat of fusion or vaporization in terms of other units for the comparison of observations. The earlier forms of ice-calorimeter, those of Black, and of Laplace and Lavoisier, were useless for work of precision, on account of the impossibility of accurately estimating the quantity of water left adhering to the ice in each case. This difficulty was overcome by the inven- tion of the Bunsen calorimeter, in which the quantity of ice melted is measured by observing the diminution of volume, but the successful employment of this instrument requires consider- able skill in manipulation. The sheath of ice surrounding the bulb must be sufficiently continuous to prevent escape of heat, but it must not be so solid as to produce risk of strain. The ideal condition is difficult to secure. In the practical use of the instrument it is not necessary to know both the latent heat of fusion of ice and the change of volume which occurs on melting; it is sufficient to determine the change of volume per calorie, or the quantity of mercury which is drawn into the bulb of the apparatus per unit of heat added. This can be determined by a direct calibration, by inserting a known quantity of water at a known temperature and observing the contraction, or weighing the mercury drawn into the apparatus. In order to be inde- pendent of the accuracy of the thermometer employed for observing the initial temperature of the water introduced, it has been usual to employ water at 100° C., adopting as unit of heat the " mean calorie," which is one-hundredth part of the heat given up by one gramme of water in cooling from 100° to o° C. The weight of mercury corresponding to the mean calorie has been determined with considerable care by a number of observers well skilled in the use of the instrument. The following are some of their results: — Bunsen, 15-41 mgm.; Velten, 15-47 mgm.; Zakrevski, 15-57 mgm.; Staub, 15-26 mgm. The explanation of these discrepancies in the fundamental constant is not at all clear, but they may be taken as an illustration of the difficulties of manipulation attending the use of this instrument, to which reference has already been made. It is not possible to deduce a more satisfactory value from the latent heat and the change of density, because these constants are very difficult to determine. The following are some of the values deduced by well-known experimentalists for the latent heat of fusion: — Regnault, 79-06 to 79-24 calories, corrected by Person to 79-43; Person, 79-99 calories; Hess, 80-34 calories; Bunsen, 80-025 calories. Regnault, Person and Hess employed the method of mixture which is probably the most accurate for the purpose. Person and Hess avoided the error of water sticking to the ice by using dry ice at various temperatures below o° C., and determining the specific heat of ice as well as the latent heat of fusion. These discrep- ancies might, no doubt, be partly explained by differences in the units employed, which are somewhat uncertain, as the specific heat of water changes rapidly in the neighbourhood of o° C; but making all due allowance for this, it remains evident that the method of ice-calorimetry, in spite of its theoretical simplicity, presents grave difficulties in its practical application. One of the chief difficulties in the practical use of the Bunsen calorimeter is the continued and often irregular movement of the mercury column due to slight differences of temperature, or pressure between the ice in the calorimeter and the ice bath in which it is immersed. C. V. Boys (Phil. Mag., 1887, vol. 24, p. 214) showed that these effects could be very greatly reduced by surrounding the calorimeter with an outer tube, so that the ice inside was separated from the ice outside by an air space which greatly reduces the free passage of heat. The present writer has found that very good results may be obtained by enclosing the calorimeter in a vacuum jacket (as illustrated in fig. 3), which practically eliminates conduction and convec- tion. If the vacuum jacket is silvered inside, radiation also is reduced to such an extent that, if the vacuum is really good, the external ice bath may be dispensed with for the majority of purposes. If the inner bulb is filled with mercury instead of water and ice, the same arrangement answers admirably as a Fayre and Silbermann calorimeter, for measuring small quantities of heat by the expansion of the mercury. The question has been raised by E. L. Nichols (Phys. Rev. vol. 8, January 1899) whether there may not be different modifications of ice with different densities, and different values of the latent heat of fusion. He found for natural pond-ice a density 0-9179 and for artificial ice 0-9161. J. Vincent (Phil. Trans. A. 198, p. 463) also found a density -9160 for artificial ice, which is probably very nearly FIG. 3. CALORIMETRY correct. If such variations of density exist, they may introduce tome uncertainty in t'n- absolute values of results obtained with the ice calori meter, and may account for some of the discrepancies above enumerated. § 5. The Method of Condensation was first successfully applied by J. Joly in the construction of his steam calorimeter, a full description of which will be found in text-books. The body to be tested is placed in a special scale-pan, suspended by a fine wire from the arm of a balance inside an enclosure which can be filU •er gramme-degree-centigrade, or " calorie," is the most appro- )riate, as being independent of the value of gravity. A more convenient unit of work or energy, in practice, on account of the iTKilliH'ss of the erg, is the joule, which is equal to 10- 7 ergs, or one watt-second of electrical energy. On account of its practical convenience, and its dose relation to the international electrical units, the joule has been recommended by the British Association or adoption as the absolute unit of heat. Other convenient >ractical units of the same kind would be the wall-hour, 3600 oules, which is of the same order of magnitude as the kilo- calorie, and the kilowatt-hour, which is the ordinary commercial unit of electrical energy. | 8. Joule. — The earlier work of Joule is now chiefly of historical ntcrest, but his later measurements in 1878, which were undertaken >n a larger scale, adopting G. A. Hirn's method of measuring the work expended in terms of the torque and the number of revolutions, still possess value as experimental evidence. In these experiments (see fig. 4) :he paddles were revolved by rianu at such a speed as to produce a constant torque on the calorimeter h, which was supported on a float w in a vessel of water v, but was kept at rest by the couple due to a pair of equal weights k sus- pended from fine strings pass- ing round the circumference of a horizontal wheel attached to the calorimeter. Each experi- ment lasted about forty minutes, and the rise of tem- perature produced was nearly 3° C. The calorimeter con- tained about 5 kilogrammes of water, so that the rate of heat-supply was about 6 calories per second. Joule's FIG. 4. final result was 772-55 foot-pounds at Manchester per pounl-degree- Fahrenheit at a temperature of 62° F., but individual experiments differed by as much as I %. This result in C.G.S. measure is equi- valent to 4-177 joules per calorie at 16-5° C., on the scale of Joule's mercury thermometer. His thermometers were subsequently cor- rected to the Paris scale by A. Schuster in 1895, which had the effect of reducing the above figure to 4-173. § 9. Rowland. — About the same time H. A. Rowland (Proc. Amer. Acaa. xv. p. 75, 1880) repeated the experiment, employing the same method, but using a larger calorimeter (about 8400 grammes) and a petroleum motor, so as to obtain a greater rate of heating (about 84 calories per second), and to reduce the importance of the un- certain correction for external loss of heat. Rowland's apparatus is shown in fig. 5. The calorimeter was suspended by a steel wire, the torsion of which made the equilibrium stable. The torque was measured by weights O and P suspended by silk ribbons passing over the pulleys n and round the disk kl. The power was transmitted to the paddles by bevel wheels/, e, rotating a spindle passing through a stuffing box in the bottom of the calorimeter. The number of revolutions and the rise of temperature were recorded on a chrono- graph drum. He paid "greater attention to the important question of thermometry, and extended his researches over a much wider range of temperature, namely 5° to 35° C. His experiments revealed for the first time a diminution in the specific heat of water with rise of temperature between o° and 30° C., amounting to four parts in 10-000 per 1° C. His thermometers were compared with a mercury thermometer standardized in Paris, and with a platinum thermo- meter standardized by Griffiths. The result was to reduce the co- efficient of diminution of specific heat at 15° C. by nearly one half, but the absolute value at 20° C. is practically unchanged. Thus corrected his values are as follows : — Temperature . 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° Joules per cal. . 4-197 4-188 4-181 4-176 4-175 4-177 These are expressed in terms of the hydrogen scale, but the difference from the nitrogen scale is so small as to be within the limits of ex- perimental error in this particular case. Rowland himself considered his results to be probably correct to one part in 500, and supposed that the greatest uncertainty lay in the comparison of the scale of his mercury thermometer with the air thermometer. The su bseq uent correction, though not carried out strictly under the conditions of the experiment, showed that the order of accuracy of his work about the middle of the range from 15" to 25° was at least I in lopo, and probably I in 2000. At 30° he considered that, owing to the increas- ing magnitude and uncertainty of the radiation correction, there CALORIMETRY " might be a small error in the direction of making the equivalent too great, and that the specific heat might go on decreasing to even 40° C." The results considered with reference to the variation of FIG. 5. the specific heat of water are shown in the curve marked Rowland in Fig. 6. § 10. Osborne Reynolds and W.H.Moorby (Phil. Trans. ,1897, p. 381) determined the mechanical equivalent of the mean thermal unit between o° and 1 00° C., on a very large scale, with a Froude- Reynolds hydraulic brake and a steam-engine of 100 h.p. This brake is practi- cally a Joule calorimeter, ingeniously designed to churn the water in such a manner as to develop the greatest possible resistance. The admission of water at o° C. to the brake was controlled by hand in such a manner as to keep the outflow nearly at the boiling-point, the quantity of water in the brake required to produce a constant torque being regulated automatically, as the speed varied, by a valve worked by the lifting of the weighted lever attached to the brake. FIG. 6. The accompanying illustration (fig. 7) shows the brake lagged with cotton-wool, and the 4-ft. lever to which the weights are suspended. The power of the brake may be estimated by comparison with the size of the rope pulley seen behind it on the same shaft. With 300 pounds on a 4-ft. lever at 300 revolutions per minute, the rate of generation of heat was about 12 kilo-calories per second. In spite of the large range of temperature, the correction for external loss of heat amounted to only 5%, with the brake uncovered, and was reduced to less than 2 % by lagging. This is the special advantage of working on so large a scale with so rapid a generation of heat. But, for the same reason, the method necessarily presents peculiar difficulties, which were not overcome without great pains and in- genuity. The principal troubles arose from damp in the lagging which necessitated the rejection of several trials, and from dissolved air in the water, causing loss of heat by the formation of steam. Next to the radiation loss, the most uncertain correction was that for conduction of heat along the 4-in. shaft. These losses were as far as possible eliminated by combining the trials in pairs, with differ- ent loads on the brake, assuming that the heat-loss would be the same in the heavy and light trials, provided that the external temperature and the gradient in the shaft, as estimated from the temperature of the bearings, were the same. The values deduced in this manner for the equivalent agreed as closely as could be expected considering the impossibility of regulating the external condition of temperature and moisture with any certainty in an engine-room. The extreme variation of results in any one series was only from 776.63 to 779.46 ft. -pounds, or less than J %. This variation may have been due to the state of the lagging, which Mporby distrusted in spite of the great reduction of the heat-loss, or it may have been partly due to the difficulty of regulating the speed of the engine and the water- supply to the brake in such a manner as to maintain a constant temperature in the outflow, and avoid variations in the heat capacity of the brake. Since hand regulation is necessarily discontinuous, the speed and the temperature were constantly varying, so that it was useless to take readings nearer than the tenth of a degree. The largest variation recorded in the two trials of which full details are given, was 4-9° F. in two minutes in the outflow temperature, and four or five revolutions per minute on the speed. These variations, so far as they were of a purely accidental nature, would be approxi- mately eliminated on the mean of a large number of trials, so that the accuracy of the final result would be of a higher order than might be inferred from a comparison of separate pairs of trials. Great pains FIG. 7. were taken to discuss and eliminate all the sources of constant error which could be foreseen. The results of the light trials with 400 ft.- pounds on the brake differ slightly from those with 600 ft. -pounds. This might be merely accidental, or it might indicate some constant difference in the conditions requiring further investigation. It would have been desirable, if possible, to have tried the effect of a larger range of variation in the experimental conditions of load and speed, with a view to detect the existence of constant errors; but owing to the limitations imposed by the use of a steam-engine, and the difficulty of securing steady conditions of running, this proved to be impossible. There can be no doubt, however, that the final result is the most accurate direct determination of the value of the mean calorie between o° and 1 00° C. in mechanical units. Expressed in joules per calorie the result is 4' 1 832, which agrees very closely with the value found by Rowland as the mean over the range 15° to 20° C. The value 4-183 is independently confirmed in a remarkable manner by the results of the electrical method described below, which give 4-185 joules for the mean calorie, if Rowland's value is assumed as the starting-point, and taken to be 4-180 joules at 20° C. § ii. Electrical Methods. — The value of the international electrical units has by this time been so accurately determined in absolute measure that they afford a very good, though indirect, method of determining the mechanical equivalent of heat. But, quite apart from this, electrical methods possess the greatest value for calorimetry, on account of the facility and accuracy of regulating and measuring the quantity of heat supplied by an electric current. The frictional generation of heat in a metallic wire conveying a current can be measured in various ways, which correspond to slightly different methods. By Ohm's law, and by the definition of difference of electric pressure or potential, we obtain the following alternative expressions for the quantity of heat H in joules generated in a time T seconds by a current of C amperes flowing in a wire of resistance R ohms, the difference of potential between the ends of the wire being E = CR volts: — H = ECT=C*RT = E?TIR . . . (i.) The method corresponding to the expression C?RT was adopted CALORIMETRY by Joule and by most of the early experimentalists. The defects of the earlier work from an electrical point of view lay chiefly in the difficulty of measuring the current with sufficient accuracy owing to the imperfect development of the science of electrical measurement. These difficulties have been removed by the great advances since iSSo. and in particular by the introduction of accurate standard cells for measurements of electrical pressure. | 12. Griffiths.— The method adopted by E. H. Griffiths (Phil. Trans.. 1893, p. 361), whose work threw a great deal of light on the failure of previous observers to secure consistent results, corre- tpondetl to the last expression ET/R. and counted in regulating the current by a special rheostat, so as to keep the potential difference E on the terminals of the resistance A' balanced against a given number of standard Clark cells of the Board of Trade pattern. The resistance R could be deduced from a knowledge of the temperature of the calorimeter ami tlie coefficient of the wire. But in order to obtain trustworthy results by this method he found it necessary to employ very rapid stirring (2000 revolutions per minute), and to insulate the wire very carefully from the liquid to prevent leakage of the current. He also made a special experiment to find how much the temperature of the wire exceeded that of the liquid under the conditions of the experiment. This correction had been neglected by previous observers employing similar methods. The resistance K was about 9 ohms, and the potential difference E was varied from three to six ("lark cells, giving a rate of heat-supply about 2 to 6 watts. The water equivalent of the calorimeter was about 85 grammes, and was determined by varying the quantity of water from 1 4" to 260 or 280 grammes, so that the final results depended on a difference in the weight of water of 120 to 140 grammes. The range ol temperature in each experiment was 14° to 26° C. The rate of rise was observed with a mercury thermometer standardized by com- parison with a platinum thermometer under the conditions of the experiment. The time of passing each division was recorded on an electric chronograph. The duration of an experiment varied from about 30 to 70 minutes. Special observations were made to deter- mine the corrections for the heat supplied by stirring, and that lost by radiation, each of which amounted to about 10% of the heat- supply. The calorimeter was gilded, and completely FIG. 8. surrounded by a nickel-plated steel enclosure B, forming the bulb of a mercury thermo-regulator, immersed in a large water-bath maintained at a constant temperature. In spite of the large cor- rections the results were extremely consistent, and the value of the temperature-coefficient of the diminution of the specific heat of water, deduced from the observed variation in the rate of rise at different points of the range 15° to 25", agreed with the value subse- quently deduced from Rowland's experiments over the same range, when his thermometers were reduced to the same scale. Griffiths' final result for the average value of the calorie over this range was 4-192 joules, taking the E.M.F. of the Clark cell at 15° C. to be .1 volts. The difference from Rowland's value, 4-181, could be explained by supposing the E.M.F. of the Clark cells to have in reality been 1-4323 volts, or about 2 millivolts less than the value assumed. Griffiths subsequently applied the same method to the measurement of the specific heat of aniline, and the latent heat of vaporization of benzene and water. t 1$. Sdiusttr and Gannon. — The method employed by A. Schuster and \V. r.annon for the determination of the specific heat of water in terms of the international electric units (Phil. Tram. A, 1895, P- 4'5) corresponded to the expression ECT, and differed in many essential details from that of Griffiths. The current through a platinoid resistance of about 31 ohms in a calorimeter containing isoogrammcs of water was regulated so that the potential difference on its ter- minals was equal to that of twenty Board of Trade Clark cells in •cries. The duration of an experiment was about ten minutes, and the product of the mean current and the time, namely CT, was ured by the weight of silver deposited in a voltameter, which amounted to about 0-56 gramme. The uncertainty due to the cor- rection for the water equivalent was minimized by making it small (about 27 grammes) in comparison with the water weiglit. The correction lor external loss was reduced by employing a small rise of temperature (only 2-22°), and making the rate of heat-supply relatively rapid, nearly 24 watts. The platinoid coil was insulated from the water by shellac varnish. The wire had a length of 760 cms., and the potential difference on its terminals was nearly 30 volts. The rate of stirring adopted was so slow that the heat generated by it could be neglected. The result found was 4-191 joules per calorie at 19° C. This agrees very well with Griffiths considering the difficulty of measuring so small a rise of temperature at 2° with a mercury thermometer. Admitting that the electro-chemical equiva- lent of silver increases with the age of the solution, a fact subse- quently discovered, and that the E.M.F. of the Clark cell is probably less than I '4340 volts (the value assumed by Schuster and Gannon), there is no difficulty in rcconcilingthc result with that of Rowland. § 14. H. L. Callendar and H. T. Barnes (Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1897 and 1899) adopted an entirely different method of calorimetry, as well as a different method of electrical measurement. A steady current of liquid, Q grammes per second, of specific heat, Js joules per degree, flowing through a fine tube, A B, fig. 9, is heated by a steady electric current during its passage through the tube, ancf the difference of temperature 06 between the inflowing and the outflowing liquid is measured by a single reading with a delicate pair of differential platinum thermometers at A and B. The difference of potential E between the ends of the tube, and the electric current C through it, are measured on an accurately calibrated potentiometer, in terms of a Clark cell and a standard resistance. If M6 is the radiation loss in watts we have the equation, EC = JsQde+hd9 .... (2). The advantage of this method is that all the conditions are steady, so that the observations can be pushed to the limit of accuracy and FIG. 9. sensitiveness of the apparatus. The water equivalent of the calori- meter is immaterial, since there is no appreciable change of tem- perature. The heat-loss can be reduced to a minimum by enclosing the flow-tube in a hermetically sealed glass vacuum jacket. Stirring is effected by causing the water to circulate spirally round the bulbs of the thermometers and the heating conductor as indicated in the figure. The conditions can be very easily varied through a wide range. The heat-loss hd9 is determined and eliminated by varying the flow of liquid and the electric current simultaneously, in such a manner as to secure approximately the same rise of temperature for two or more widely different values of the flow of liquid. An example taken from the Electrician, September 1897, of one of the earliest experiments by this method on the specific heat of mercury will make the method clearer. The flow-tube was about I metre long and I millim. in diameter, coiled in a short spiral inside the vacuum jacket. The outside of the vacuum jacket was immersed in a water jacket at a steady temperature equal to that of the in- flowing mercury. SPECIFIC HEAT OF MERCURY BY CONTINUOUS ELECTRIC METHOD Flow of Hg. Rise of Temp. Watts. Heat-loss. Specific Heat. gm./sec. 8-753 4-594 da 11-764 12-301 EC 14-862 7-912 hdO 0-6S5 0-685 Per gm. deg. } -13780 joules \ -03297 cals. It is assumed as a first approximation that the heat-loss is propor- tional to the rise of temperature df>, provided that dO is nearly the same in both cases, and that the distribution of temperature in the apparatus is the same for the same rise of temperature whatever the flow of liquid. The result calculated on these assumptions is given in the last column in joules, and also in calorics of 20° C. The heat- loss in this example is large, nearly 4-5% of the total supply, owin« to the small flow and the large rise of temperature, but this correction was greatly reduced in subsequent observations on the specific heat of water by the same method. In the case of mercury the liquid itself can be utilized to conduct the electric current. In the case of water or other liquids it is necessary to employ a platinum wire stretched along the tube as heating conductor. This introduces additional difficulties of construction, but does not otherwise affect V-3 66 CALORIMETRY the method. The absolute value of the specific heat deduced neces- sarily depends on the absolute values of the electrical standards employed in the investigation. But for the determination of relative values of specific heats in terms of a standard liquid, or of the varia- tions of specific heat of a liquid, the method depends only on the constancy of the standards, which can be readily and accurately tested. The absolute value of the E.M.F. of the Clark cells employed was determined with a special form of electrodynamometer (Callendar, Phil. Trans. A. 313, p. 81), and found to be 1-4334 volts, assuming the ohm to be correct. Assuming this value, the result found by this method for the specific heat of water at 20° C. agrees with that of Rowland within the probable limits of error. § 15. Variation of Specific Heat of Water. — The question of the variation of the specific heat of water has a peculiar interest and importance in connexion with the choice of a thermal unit. Many of the uncertainties in the reduction of older experiments, such as those of Regnault, arise from uncertainty in regard to the unit in terms of which they are expressed, which again depends on the scale of the particular thermometer employed in the investigation. The first experiments of any value were those of Regnault in 1847 on the specific heat of water between 110° C. and 192° C. They were con- ducted on a very large scale by the method of mixture, but showed discrepancies of the order of 0-5 %, and the calculated results in many cases do not agree with the data. This may be due merely to de- ficient explanation of details of tabulation. We may probably take the tabulated values as showing correctly the rate of variation between I ip° and 190° C., but the values in terms of any particular thermal unit must remain uncertain to at least 0-5% owing to the uncertainties of the thermometry. Regnault himself adopted the formula, s= i +0-00004^ +0-0000009^ (Regnault), (3) for the specific heat s at any temperature / C. in terms of the specific heat at o° C. taken as the standard. This formula has since been very generally applied over the whole range o° to 200° C., but the experiments could not in reality give any information with regard to the specific heat at temperatures below ioo°C. The linear formula proposed by J. Bosscha from an independent reduction of Regnault's experiments is probably within the limits of accuracy between 100° and 200° C., so far as the mean rate of variation is concerned, but the absolute values require reduction. It may be written — s = .Sioo + -00023 (/ — 100) (Bosscha- Regnault) (4). The work of L. Pfaundler and H. Platter, of G. A. Him, of J. C. Jamin and Amaury, and of many other experimentalists who suc- ceeded Regnault, appeared to indicate much larger rates of increase than he had found, but there can be little doubt that the discrepancies of their results, which often exceeded 5%, were due to lack of appreciation of the difficulties of calorimetric measure- ments. The work of Rowland by the mechanical method was the first in which due attention was paid to the thermometry and to the reduction of the results to the absolute scale of temperature. The agreement of his corrected results with those of Griffiths by a very different method, left very little doubt with regard to the rate of diminution of the specific heat of water at 20° C. The work of A. Bartoli and E. Stracciati by the method of mixture between o° and 30° C., though their curve is otherwise similar to Rowland's, had appeared to indicate a minimum at 20° C., followed by a rapid rise. This lowering of the minimum was probably due to some constant errors inherent in their method of experiment. The more recent work of Ludin, 1895, under the direction of Prof. J. Fernet, extended from o" to 100° C., and appears to have attained as high a degree of excellence as it is possible to reach by the employment of mercury thermometers in conjunction with the method of mixture. His results, exhibited in fig. 6, show a minimum at 25° C., and a maximum at 87° C., the values being -9935 and 1-0075 respectively in terms of the mean specific heat between o° and 100 C. He paid great attention to the thermometry, and the discrepancies of in- dividual measurements at any one point nowhere exceed 0-3%, but he did not vary the conditions of the experiments materially, and it does not appear that the well-known constant errors of the method could have been completely eliminated by the devices which he adopted. The rapid rise from 25° to 75° may be due to radiation error from the hot water supply, and the subsequent fall of the curve to the inevitable loss of heat by evaporation of the boiling water on its way to the calorimeter. It must be observed, however, that there is another grave difficulty in the accurate determination of the specific heat of water near 100 C. by this method, namely, that the quantity actually observed is not the specific heat at the higher temperature t, but the mean specific heat over the range 1 8° to I. The specific heat itself can be deduced only by differentiating the curve of observation, which greatly increases the uncertainty. The peculiar advantage of the electric method of Callendar and Barnes, already referred to, is that the specific heat itself is determined over a range of 8° to 10° at each point, by adding accurately measured quantities of heat to the water at the desired temperature in an isothermal enclosure, under perfectly steady conditions, without any possibility of evaporation or loss of heat in transference. These experiments, which have been extended by Barnes over the whole range o° to 100°, agree very well with Rowland and Griffiths in the rate of variation at 20° C., but show a rather flat minimum of specific heat in the neighbourhood of 38° to 40° C. At higher points the rate of variation is very similar to that of Regnault's curve, but taking the specific heat at 20° as the standard of reference, the actual values are nearly 0-56% less than Regnault's. It appears probable that his values for higher temperatures may be adopted with this reduc- tion, which is further confirmed by the results of Reynolds and Moorby, and by those of Ludin. According to the electric method, the whole range of variation of the specific heat between 10° and 80° is only 0-5 %. Comparatively simple formulae, therefore, suffice for its expression to I in 10,000, which is beyond the limits of accuracy of the observations. It is more convenient in practice to use a few simple formulae, than to attempt to represent the whole range by a single complicated expression : — Below 20° C. 5 = 0-9982+0-000,0045 (/— 4o)2 — 0-000,0005 (< — ao)8. From 20° to 60°, 5 = 0-9982 +0-000,0045 (l~ 4°)2 (5)- Ss = 0-9944 + -000-04/ +0-000,0009 P (Regnault corrd.) 5 = 1-000+0-000,22 (/— 60), (Bosscha corrd.) The addition of the cubic term below 20° is intended to represent the somewhat more rapid change near the freezing-point. This effect is probably due, as suggested by Rowland, to the presence of a certain proportion of ice molecules in the liquid, which is also no doubt the cause of the anomalous expansion. Above 60° C. Regnault's formula is adopted, the absolute values being simply diminished by a constant quantity 0-0056 to allow for the probable errors of his thermometry. Above 100° C., and for approximate work generally, the simpler formula of Bosscha, similarly corrected, is probably adequate. The following table of values, calculated from these formulae, is taken from the Brit. Assoc. Report, 1899, with a slight modification SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER IN TERMS OF UNIT AT 20° C. 4-1 80 JOULES t°C. Joules. 5. h. Rowland. 0° 4-208 I -0094 o o 5* 4-202 1-0054 5-037 5-037 10° 4-191 I -OO27 10-056 10-058 15° 4-184 I-OOII 15-065 15-068 20° 4-180 I -OOOO 20-068 20-071 25° 4' '77 0-9992 25-065 25-067 3°: 4-175 0-9987 30-060 30-057 35° 4-173 0-9983 35-052 35-053 40° 4-173 0-9982 40-044 50° 4-175 0-9987 50-028 60° 4-180 •OOOO 60-020 70° 4-187 •0016 70-028 80° 4-194 •0033 80-052 90° 4-202 •0053 90-095 Shaw 100° 4-211 •0074 100-158 Regnault 120° 4-23i •OI2I 120-35 120-73 140° 4-254 •0176 140-65 140-88 160° 4-280 •0238 161-07 161-20 1 80° 4-309 •0308 181-62 182-14 200° 4-341 •0384 202-33 220° 4-376 •0467 223-20 to allow for the increase in the specific heat below 20° C. This was estimated in 1899 as being equivalent to the addition of the constant quantity 0-020 to the values of the total heat h of the liquid as reckoned by the parabolic formula (5). This quantity is now, as the result of further experiments, added to the values of h, and also re- presented in the formula for the specific heat itself by the cubic term. The unit of comparison in the following table is taken as the specific heat of water at 20° C. for the reasons given below. This unit is taken as being 4-180 joules per gramme-degree-centigrade on the scale of the platinum thermometer, corrected to the absolute scale as explained in the article THERMOMETRY, which has been shown to be practically equivalent to the hydrogen scale. The value 4-180 joules at 20° C. is the mean between Rowland's corrected result 4-181 and the value 4- 1 79, deduced from the experiments of Reynolds and Moorby on the assumption that the ratio of the mean specific heat o° to 100° to that at 20° is I -0016, as given by the formulae repre- senting the results of Callendar and Barnes. This would indicate that Rowland's corrected values should, if anything, be lowered. In any case the value of the mechanical equivalent is uncertain to at least I in 2000. The mean specific heat, over any range of temperature, may be obtained by integrating the formulae between the limits required, or by taking the difference of the corresponding values of the total heat h, and dividing by the range of temperature. The quantity actually observed by Rowland was the total heat. It may be re- marked that starting from the same value at 5°, for the sake of comparison, Rowland's values of the total heat agree to I in 5000 with those calculated from the formulae. The values of the total heat observed by Regnault, as reduced by Shaw, also show a very fair agreement, considering the uncertainty of the units. It must be admitted that it is desirable to redetermine the variation of the specific heat above 100° C. This is very difficult on account of the steam-pressure, and could not easily be accomplished by the electrical CALORIMETRY 67 method. Callendar has. however, devised a continuous method of mixture, which appear* to be peculiarly adapted to the purpose, and promise* to KIM- morv certain results. In any case it may be remarked that formulae such as those of Juinin. llcnru hsen, Baum- gartnrr. Winkclmann or Uieterici, which give far more rapid rates of increase than that of Keenault, cannot possibly be reconciled with his observations, or with those of Reynolds and Moorby, or i 'alU.-iul.ir and Barnes, and are certainly inapplicable above 100° C. § 16. On Ike Choice of Ike Thermal Unit. — So much uncertainty still prevails on this fundamental point that it cannot be passed over without reference. There arc three possible kinds of unit, depending on the three fundamental methods already given: (i) the thcrmometric unit, or the thermal capacity of unit mass of a standard substance under given conditions of temperature and pressure on the scale of a standard thermometer. (2) The latent-heat unit, or the quantity of heat required to melt or vaporize unit mass of a standard substance under given conditions. This unit has the advantage of being independent of thermometry , but the applicability of these methods is limited to special cases, and the relation of the units to other units is difficult to determine. (3) The absolute or mechanical unit, the quantity of heat equivalent to a given quantity of mechanical or electrical energy. This can be very accurately realized, but is not so convenient as (i) for ordinary purposes. In any case it is necessary to define a thcrmometric unit of class (i). The standard substance must be a liquid. Water is always selected, although some less volatile liquid, such as aniline or mercury, would possess many advantages. With regard to the scale of tem- perature, there is very general agreement that the absolute scale as realized by the hydrogen or helium thermometer should be adopted as the ultimate standard of reference. But as the hydrogen thermometer is not directly available for the majority of experiments, it i- necessary to use a secondary standard for the practical definition of the unit. The electrical resistance thermometer of platinum presents very great advantages for this purpose over the mercury thermometer in point of reproducibility, accuracy and adaptability to the practical conditions of experiment. The conditions of use of a mercury thermometer in a calorimetric experiment are neces- sarily different from those under which its corrections are determined, and this difference must inevitably give rise to constant errors in practical work. The primary consideration in the definition of a unit is to select that method which permits the highest order of accuracy in comparison and verification. For this reason the de- finition of the thermal unit will in the end probably be referred to a scale of temperature defined in terms of a standard platinum thermometer. There is more diversity of opinion with regard to the question of the standard temperature. Many authors, adopting Renault's formula, have selected o° C. as the standard temperature, but this cannot be practically realized in the case of water, and his formula is certainly erroneous at low temperatures. A favourite tempera- ture to select is 4° C., the temperature of maximum density, since at this point the specific heat at constant volume is the same as that at constant pressure But this is really of no consequence, since the specific heat at constant volume cannot be practically realized. The specific heat at 4" could be accurately determined at the mean over the range o° to 8° keeping the jacket at o° C. _ But the change appears to be rather rapid near o°, the temperature is inconveniently low for ordinary calorimetric work, and the unit at 4° would be so much larger than the specific heat at ordinary temperatures that nearly all experiments would require reduction. The natural point to .select would be that of minimum specific heat, but if this occurs at 40* C. it would be inconveniently high for practical realization except by the continuous electrical method. It was proposed by a committee of the British Association to select the temperature at which the specific heat was 4-200 joules, leaving the exact tempera- ture to be subsequently determined. It was supposed at the time, from the original reduction of Rowland's experiments, that this would be nearly at 10° C., but it now appears that it may be as low as 5° C., which would be inconvenient. This is really only an absolute unit in disguise, and evades the essential point, which is the selection of a standard temperature for the water thermometric unit. A similar objection applies to selecting the temperature at which the specific heat is equal to its mean value between o° and loo'. The mean calorie cannot be accurately realized in practice in any simple manner, and is therefore unsuitable as a standard of comparison. Its relation to the caloric at any given temperature, such as 15* or 20°, cannot be determined with the same do^n-i- <,f accuracy as the ratio of the specific heat at 15" to that at 20 , if the scale of temperature is given. The most practical unit is the calorie at 15 or 20° or some temperature in the range of ordinary practice. The temperature most generally favoured is 15°. but 20° would be more suitable for accurate work. These units differ only by II parts in 10,000 according to Callendar and Barnes, or by 13 in 10.000 according to Rowland and Griffiths, so that the difference between them is of no great im|>ori.uicc fur ordinary purposes. But for purposes of definition it would IK- necessary to take the mean value of the specific heat aver a given range of temperature, preferably at least 10°, rather than the specific heat at a point which necessitates reference to some formula of reduction for the rate of variation. The specific heat at 15° would be determined with reference to the mean over the range 10° to 20°, and that at 20° from the range 15° to 25°. There can be no doubt that the range IO° to 20° is too low for the accurate thermal regulation of the conditions of the experiment. The range 15° to 25° would be much more convenient from this point of view, and a mean temperature of 20° is probably nearest the average of accurate calorimetric work. For instance 20 is the mean of the range of the experiments of Griffiths and of Rowland, and is close to that of Schuster and ( Cannon. It is readily attainable at any time in a modern laboratory with adequate heating arrangements, and is probably on the whole the most suitable temperature to select. § 17. Specific Heat of Gases. — In the case of solids and liquids under ordinary conditions of pressure, the external work of expansion is so small that it may generally be neglected; but with gases or vapours, or with liquids near the critical point, the external work becomes so large that it is essential to specify the conditions under which the specific heat is measured. The most important cases are, the specific heats (i) at constant volume; (2) at constant pressure; (3) at saturation pressure in the case of a liquid or vapour. In consequence of the small thermal capacity of gases and vapours per unit volume at ordinary pressures, the difficulties of direct measurement are almost insuperable except in case (2). Thus the direct experimental evidence is somewhat meagre and conflicting, but the question of the relation of the specific heats of gases is one of great interest in connexion with the kinetic theory and the constitution of the molecule. The well-known experiments of Regnault and Wiedemann on the specific heat of gases at constant pressure agree in showing that the molecular specific heal, or the thermal capacity of the mole- cular weight in grammes, is approximately independent of the temperature and pressure in case of the more stable diatomic gases, such as H2)O2, N2, CO, &c., and has nearly the same value for each gas. They also indicate that it is much larger, and increases considerably with rise of temperature, in the case of more condensible vapours, such as C12, Bra, or more complicated molecules, such as CO2,N2O, NHs, CjH^ The direct determina- tion of the specific heat at constant volume is extremely difficult, but has been successfully attempted by Joly with his steam calorimeter, in the case of air and CO2. Employing pressures between 7 and 27 atmospheres, he found that the specific heat of air between 10° and 100° C. increased very slightly with increase of density, but that of CO2 increased nearly 3 % between 7 and 2 1 atmospheres. The following formulae represent his results for the specific heat s at constant volume in terms of the density d in gms. per c. c. : — Air, s=o-l7is-t-o-028unce of a book written at so early an age, which has exercised -.ui'h a prodigious influence upon the opinions and practices both of contemporaries and of posterity. After a short visit (April 1536) to the court of Renee, duchess of Ferrara (cousin to Margaret of Navarre), which at that time afforded an asylum to several learned and pious fugitives from persecution, Calvin returned through Basel to France to arrange his affairs before finally taking farewell of his native country. His intention was to settle at Strassburg or Basel, and to devote himself to study. But being unable, in consequence of the war between Francis I. and Charles V., to reach Strassburg by the ordinary route, he with his younger brother Antoine and his half-sister Marie journeyed to Lyons and so to Geneva, making for Basel. In Geneva his progress was arrested, and his resolution to pursue the quiet path of studious research was dispelled by what he calls the " formidable obtestation " of Guillaume Farel.2 After many struggles and no small suffering, this energetic spirit had succeeded in planting the evangelical standard at Geneva; and anxious to secure the aid of such a man as Calvin, he entreated him on his arrival to relinquish his design of going farther, and to vote himself to the work in that city. Calvin at first declined, alleging as an excuse his need of securing more time for personal improvement, but ultimately, believing that he was divinely called to this task and that " God had stretched forth His hand upon me from on high to arrest me," he consented to remain at Geneva. He hurried to Basel, transacted some business, and returned to Geneva in August 1536. He at once began to ex- pound the epistles of St Paul in the church of St Pierre, and after about a year was also elected preacher by the magistrates with the consent of the people, an office which he would not accept until it had been repeatedly pressed upon him. His services seem to have been rendered for some time gratuitously, for in February 1 537 there is an entry in the city registers to the effect that six crowns had been voted to him, " since he has as yet hardly received anything." Calvin was in his twenty-eighth year when he was thus constrained to settle at Geneva; and in this city the rest of his life, with the exception of a brief interval, was spent. The post to which he was thus called was not an easy one. Though the people of Geneva had cast off the obedience of Rome, it was largely a political revolt against the duke of Savoy, and they were still (says Beza) " but very imperfectly enlightened in divine knowledge; they had as yet hardly emerged from the filth of the papacy."1 This laid them open to the incursions of those fanatical teachers, whom the excitement attendant upon the Reformation had called forth, and who hung mischievously upon the rear of the reforming body. To obviate the evils thence resulting, Calvin, in union with Farel, drew up a condensed statement of Christian doctrine consisting of twenty-one articles. This the citizens were summoned, in parties of ten each, to profess and swear to as the confession of their faith — a process which, though not in accordance with modern notions of the best way of establishing men in the faith, was gone through, Calvin tells us, " with much satisfaction." As the people took this oath 1 Prarf. ad Psalmos. * Ibid. * Beza, Vit. Colt. an. 1536. in the capacity of citizens, we may see here the basis laid for that theocratic system which subsequently became peculiarly charac- teristic of the Genevan polity. Deeply convinced of the import- ance of education for the young, Calvin and his coadjutors were solicitous to establish schools throughout the city, and to enforce on parents the sending of their children to them; and as he had no faith in education apart from religious training, he drew up a catechism of Christian doctrine which the children had to learn whilst they were receiving secular instruction. Of the troubles which arose from fanatical teachers, the chief proceeded from the efforts of the Anabaptists; a public disputation was held on the i6th and iyth of March 1537, and so excited the populace that the Council of Two Hundred stopped it, declared the Anabaptists vanquished and drove them from the city. About the same time also, the peace of Calvin and his friends was much disturbed and their work interrupted by Pierre Caroli, another native of northern France, who, though a man of loose principle and belief, had been appointed chief pastor at Lausanne and was discrediting the good work done by Pierre Viret in that city. Calvin went to Viret's aid and brought Caroli before the com- missioners of Bern on a charge of advocating prayers for the dead as a means of their earlier resurrection. Caroli brought a counter-charge against the Geneva divines of Sabellianism and Arianism, because they would not enforce the Athanasian creed, and had not used the words " Trinity " and " Person " in the confession they had drawn up. It was a struggle between the thoroughgoing humanistic reformer who drew his creed solely from the " word of God " and the merely semi-Protestant reformer who looked on the old creed as a priceless heritage. In a synod held at Bern the matter was fully discussed, when a verdict was given in favour of the Geneva divines, and Caroli deposed from his office and banished. He returned to France, rejoined the Roman communion and spent the rest of his life in passing to and from the old faith and the new. Thus ended an affair which seems to have occasioned Calvin much more uneasi- ness than the character of his assailant, and the manifest false- hood of the charge brought against him, would seem to justify. Two brief anti-Romanist tracts, one entitled De fugiendis impiorum sacris, the other De sacerdotio papali abjiciendo, were also published early in this year. Hardly was the affair of Caroli settled, when new and severer trials came upon the Genevan Reformers. The austere sim- plicity of the ritual which Farel had introduced, and to which Calvin had conformed; the strictness with which the ministers sought to enforce not only the laws of morality, but certain sumptuary regulations respecting the dress and mode of living of the citizens; and their determination in spiritual matters and ecclesiastical ceremonies not to submit to the least dictation from the civil power, led to violent dissensions. Amidst much party strife Calvin perhaps showed more youthful impetuosity than experienced skill. He and his colleagues refused to ad- minister the sacrament in the Bernese form, i.e. with unleavened bread, and on Easter Sunday, 1538, declined to do so at all because of the popular tumult. For this they were banished from the city. They went first to Bern, and soon after to Zurich, where a synod of the Swiss pastors had been convened. Before this assembly they pleaded their cause, and stated what were the points on which they were prepared to insist as needful for the proper discipline of the church. They declared that they would yield in the matter of ceremonies so far as to employ un- leavened bread in the eucharist, to use fonts in baptism, and to allow festival days, provided the people might pursue their ordinary avocations after public service. These Calvin re- garded as matters of indifference, provided the magistrates did not make them of importance, by seeking to enforce them ; and he was the more willing to concede them, because he hoped thereby to meet the wishes of the Bernese brethren whose ritual was less simple than that established by Farel at Geneva. But he and his colleagues' insisted, on the other hand, that for the proper maintenance of discipline, there should be a division of parishes — that excommunications should be permitted, and should be under the power of elders chosen by the council, in v. 30 74 CALVIN conjunction with the clergy — that order should be observed in the admission of preachers — and that only the clergy should officiate in ordination by the laying on of hands. It was proposed also, as conducive to the welfare of the church, that the sacrament of the Lord's Supper should be administered more frequently, at least once every month, and that congregational singing of psalms should be practised in the churches. On these terms the synod interceded with the Genevese to restore their pastors; but through the opposition of some of the Bernese (especially Peter Kuntz, the pastor of that city) this was frustrated, and a second edict of banishment was the only response. Calvin and Farel betook themselves, under these circumstances, to Basel, where they soon after separated, Farel to go to Neu- chatel and Calvin to Strassburg. At the latter place Calvin resided till the autumn of 1541, occupying himself partly in literary exertions, partly as a preacher and especially an organizer in the French church, and partly as a lecturer on theology. These years were not the least valuable in his experience. In 1539 he attended Charles V.'s conference on Christian reunion at Frankfort as the companion of Bucer, and in the following year he appeared at Hagenau and Worms, as the delegate from the city of Strassburg. He was present also at the diet at Regens- burg, where he deepened his acquaintance with Melanchthon, and formed with him a friendship which lasted through life. He also did something to relieve the persecuted Protestants of France. It is to this period of his life that we owe a revised and enlarged form of his Institutes, his Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, and his Tract on the Lord's Supper. Notwithstand- ing his manifold engagements, he found time to attend to the tenderer affections; for it was during his residence at Strass- burg that he married, in August 1540, Idelette de Bure, the widow of one Jean Stordeur of Liege, whom he had converted from Anabaptism. In her Calvin found, to use his own words, " the excellent companion of his life," a " precious help " to him amid his manifold labours and frequent infirmities. She died in 1549, to the great grief of her husband, who never ceased to mourn her loss. Their only child Jacques, born on the z8th of July 1542, lived only a few days. During Calvin's absence disorder and irreligion had prevailed in Geneva. An attempt was made by Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto (1477-1547), bishop of Carpentras, to take advantage of this so as to restore the papal supremacy in that district; but this design Calvin, at the request of the Bernese authorities, who had been consulted by those of Geneva, completely frustrated, by writing such a reply to the letter which the bishop had addressed to the Genevese, as constrained him to desist from all further efforts. The letter had more than a local or temporary reference. It was a popular yet thoroughgoing defence of the whole Protest- ant position, perhaps the best apologia for the Reformation that was ever written. He seems also to have kept up his connexion with Geneva by addressing letters of counsel and comfort to the faithful there who continued to regard him with affection. It was whilst he was still at Strassburg that there appeared at Geneva a translation of the Bible into French, bearing Calvin's name, but in reality only revised and corrected by him from the version of Oliv6tan. Meanwhile the way was opening for his return. Those who had driven him from the city gradually lost power and office. Farel worked unceasingly for his recall. After much hesitation, for Strassburg had strong claims, he yielded and returned to Geneva, where he was received with the utmost enthusiasm (September 13, 1541)- He entered upon his work with a firm determination to carry out those reforms which he had originally purposed, and to set up in all its integrity that form of church polity which he had carefully matured during his residence at Strassburg. He now became the sole directive spirit in the church at Geneva. Farel was retained by the Neuchatelois, and Viret, soon after Calvin's return, re- moved to Lausanne. His duties were thus rendered exceedingly onerous, and his labour became excessive. Besides preaching every day in each alternate week, he taught theology three days in the week, attended weekly meetings of his consistory, read the Scriptures once a week in the congregation, carried on an extensive correspondence on a multiplicity of subjects, prepared commentaries on the books of Scripture, and was engaged repeatedly in controversy with the opponents of his opinions. " I have not time," he writes to a friend, " to look out of my house at the blessed sun, and if things continue thus I shall forget what sort of appearance it has. When I have settled my usual business, I have so many letters to write, so many questions to answer, that many a night is spent without any offering of sleep being brought to nature." It is only necessary here to sketch the leading events of Calvin's life after his return to Geneva. He recodified the Genevan laws and constitution, and was the leading spirit in the negotiations with Bern that issued in the treaty of February 1544. Of the controversies in which he embarked, one of the most important was that in which he defended his doctrine concerning predestination and election. His first antagonist on this head was Albert Pighius, a Romanist, who, resuming the controversy between Erasmus and Luther on the freedom of the will, violently attacked Calvin for the views he had expressed on that subject. Calvin replied to him in a work published in 1543, in which he defends his own opinions at length, both by general reasonings and by an appeal to both Scripture and the Fathers, especially Augustine. So potent were his reasonings that Pighius, though owing nothing to the gentleness or courtesy of Calvin, was led to embrace his views. A still more vexatious and protracted controversy on the same subject arose in 1551. Jerome Hermes Bolsec, a Carmelite friar, having renounced Romanism, had fled from France to Veigy, a village near Geneva, where he practised as a physician. Being a zealous opponent of predestinarian views, he expressed his criticisms of Calvin's teaching on the subject in one of the public con- ferences held each Friday. Calvin replied with much vehemence , and brought the matter before the civil authorities. The council were at a loss which course to take ; not that they doubted which of the disputants was right, for they all held by the views of Calvin, but they were unable to determine to what extent and in which way Bolsec should be punished for his heresy. The question was submitted to the churches at Basel, Bern, Zurich and Neuchatel, but they also, to Calvin's disappointment, were divided in their judgment, some counselling severity, others gentle measures. In the end Bolsec was banished from Geneva ; he ultimately rejoined the Roman communion and in 1577 avenged himself by a particularly slanderous biography of Calvin. Another painful controversy was that with Sebastien Castellio (1515-1563), a teacher in the Genevan school and a scholar of real distinction. He wished to enter the preaching ministry but was excluded by Calvin's influence because he had criticized the inspiration of the Song of Solomon and the Genevan interpretation of the clause " he descended into hell." The bitterness thus aroused developed into life-long enmity. During all this time also the less strict party in the city and in the council did not cease to harry the reformer. But the most memorable of all the controversies in which Calvin was engaged was that into which he was brought in 1553 with Michael Servetus (?.».). After many wanderings, and after having been condemned to death for heresy at Vienne, whence he was fortunate enough to make his escape, Servetus arrived in August 1 553 at Geneva on his way to Naples. He was recognized in church and soon after, at Calvin's instigation, arrested. The charge of blasphemy was founded on certain statements in a book published by him in 1553, entitled Christi- anismi Reslitutio, in which he animadverted on the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity, and advanced sentiments strongly savouring of Pantheism. The story of his trial is told elsewhere (see art. SERVETUS), but it must be noted here that the struggle was something more than a doctrinal one. The cause of Servetus was taken up by Calvin's Genevan foes headed by Philibert Berthelier, and became a test of the relative strength of the rival forces and of the permanence of Calvin's control. That Calvin was actuated by personal spite and animosity against Servetus himself may be open to discussion; we have his own express declaration that, after Servetus was convicted, he used no CALVIN 75 urgency that he should be put to death, and at their last inter- view he told Servetus that he never had avenged private injuries. and assured him that if he would repent it would not be his fault if all the pious did not give him their hands.1 There is the fact also that Calvin used his endeavour to have the sentence which had been pronounced against Scrvetus mitigated, death by burning being regarded by him as an " atrocity," for which he sought to substitute death by the sword.1 It can be justly charged against Calvin in this matter that he took the initiative in bringing on the trial of Servetus, that as his accuser he pro- secuted the suit against him with undue severity, and that he approved the sentence which condemned Servetus to death. When, however, it is remembered that the unanimous decision of the Swiss churches and of the Swiss state governments was that Servetus deserved to die; that the general voice of Christendom was in favour of this; that even such a man as Melanchthon affirmed the justice of the sentence;* that an eminent English divine of the next age should declare the process against him " just and honourable,"4 and that only a few voices here and there were at the time raised against it, many will be ready to accept the judgment of Coleridge, that the death of Servetus was not " Calvin's guilt especially, but the common opprobrium of all European Christendom." * Calvin was also involved in a protracted and somewhat vexing dispute with the Lutherans respecting the Lord's Supper, which ended in the separation of the evangelical party into the two great sections of Lutherans and Reformed, — the former holding that in the eucharist the body and blood of Christ are objectively and consubstantially present, and so are actually partaken of by the communicants, and the latter that there is only a virtual presence of the body and blood of Christ, and consequently only a spiritual participation thereof through faith. In addition to these controversies on points of faith, he was for many years greatly disquieted, and sometimes even endangered, by the opposition offered by the libertine party in Geneva to the ecclesiastical discipline which he had established there. His system of church polity was essentially theocratic; it assumed that every member of the state was also under the discipline of the church; and he asserted that the right of exercising this discipline was vested exclusively in the consistory or body of preachers and elders. His attempts to carry out these views brought him into collision both with the authorities and with the populace, — the latter being not unnaturally restive under the restraints imposed upon their liberty by the vigorous system of church discipline, and the former being inclined to retain in their own hands a portion of that power in things spiritual which Calvin was bent on placing exclusively in the hands of the church rulers. His dauntless courage, his perseverance, and his earnestness at length prevailed, and he had the satisfaction, before he died, of seeing his favourite system of church polity firmly established, not only at Geneva, but in other parts of Switzerland, and of knowing that it had been adopted substantially by the Reformers in France and Scotland. The men whom he trained at Geneva carried his principles into almost every country in Europe, and in varying degree these principles did much for the cause of civil liberty.' Nor was it only in religious matters that Calvin busied himself; nothing was indifferent to him that concerned the welfare and good order of the state or the advantage of its citizens. His work embraced everything; he was consulted on every affair, great and small, that came before the council, — on questions of law, police, economy, trade, and manufactures, no less than on questions of doctrine and church polity. To him the city owed her trade in cloths and velvets, from which so much wealth accrued to her 1 Fidelis Expositio Errorum Served, sub init. Calvini, Opp. t. ix. 1 Calvin to Farcl, 2oth Aug. 1553. • Tuo judicio prorsus assentior. Affirmo etiam vestros magi- stral us juste fecisse quod hominem blasphemum, re ordine judicata, interfecerunt. — Melanchthon to Calvin, I4th Oct. 1554. 4 Field On the Church, bk. iii. c. 27, vol. i. p. 288 (ed. Cambridge, i-i: • Notes on Entlish Divines, vol. i. p. 49. See also Table Talk, vol. ii. p. 282 (ed. 1835). • W. Walker. John Calvin, pp. 403-8. citizens; sanitary regulations were introduced by him which made Geneva the admiration of all visitors; and in him she reverences the founder of her university. This institution was in a sense Calvin's crowning work. It added religious education to the evangelical preaching and the thorough discipline already established, and so completed the reformer's ideal of a Christian commonwealth. Amidst these multitudinous cares and occupations, Calvin found time to write a number of works besides those provoked by the various controversies in which he was engaged. The most numerous of these were of an exegetical character. Including discourses taken down from his lips by faithful auditors, we have from him expository comments or homilies on nearly all the books of Scripture, written partly in Latin and partly in French. Though naturally knowing nothing of the modern idea of a progressive revelation, his judiciousness, penetration, and tact in eliciting his author's meaning, his precision, condensation, and concinnity as an expositor, the accuracy of his learning, the closeness of his reasoning, and the elegance of his style, all unite to confer a high value on his exegetical works. The series began with Romans in 1540 and ended with Joshua in 1564. In 1558- 15 59 also, though in very ill health, he finally perfected the Institutes. The incessant and exhausting labours to which Calvin gave himself could not but tell on his fragile constitution. Amid many sufferings, however, and frequent attacks of sickness, he manfully pursued his course; nor was it till his frail body, torn by many and painful diseases — fever, asthma, stone, and gout, the fruits for the most part of his sedentary habits and unceasing activity — had, as it were, fallen to pieces around him, that his indomitable spirit relinquished the conflict. In the early part of the year 1564 his sufferings became so severe that it was manifest his earthly career was rapidly drawing to a close. On the 6th of February of that year he preached his last sermon, having with great difficulty found breath enough to carry him through it. He was several times after this carried to church, but never again was able to take any part in the service. With his usual dis- interestedness he refused to receive his stipend, now that he was no longer able to discharge the duties of his office. In the midst of his sufferings, however, his zeal and energy kept him in continual occupation; when expostulated with for such un- seasonable toil, he replied, " Would you that the Lord should find me idle when He comes?" After he had retired from public labours he lingered for some months, enduring the severest agony without a murmur, and cheerfully attending to all the duties of a private kind which his diseases left him strength to discharge. On the 2$th of April he made his will, on the 27th he received the Little Council, and on the 28th the Genevan ministers, in his sick-room ; on the 2nd of May he wrote his last letter — to his old comrade Farel, who hastened from Neuchatel to see him once again. He spent much time in prayer and died quietly, in the arms of his faithful friend Theodore Beza, on the evening of the 27th of May, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. The next day he was buried without pomp " in the common cemetery called Plain-palais " in a spot not now to be identified. Calvin was of middle stature; his complexion was somewhat pallid and dark; his eyes, to the latest clear and lustrous, bespoke the acumen of his genius. He was sparing in his food and simple in his dress; he took but little sleep, and was capable of extraordinary efforts of intellectual toil. He had a most retentive memory and a very keen power of observation. He spoke without rhetoric, simply, directly, but with great weight. He had many acquaintances but few close friends. His private character was in harmony with his public reputation and position. If somewhat severe and irritable, he was at the same time scrupulously just, truthful, and steadfast; he never deserted a friend or took an unfair advantage of an antagonist; and on befitting occasions he could be cheerful and even facetious among his intimates. " God gave him," said the Little Council after his death, " a character of great majesty." " I have been a witness of him for sixteen years," says Bcza, " and I think I am fully entitled to say that in this man there was exhibited to all an 76 CALVINISTIC METHODISTS example of the life and death of the Christian, such as it will not be easy to depreciate, such as it will be difficult to emulate." Though Calvin built his theology on the foundations laid by earlier reformers, and especially by Luther and Bucer, his peculiar gifts of learning, of logic and of style made him pre-eminently the theologian of the new religion. The following may be regarded as his characteristic tenets, though not all are peculiar to him. The dominant thought is the infinite and transcendent sovereignty of God, to know whom is the supreme end of human endeavour. God is made known to man especially by the Scriptures, whose writers were " sure and authentic amanuenses of the Holy Spirit." To the Spirit speaking therein the Spirit-illumined soul of man makes response. While God is the source of all good, man as a sinner is guilty and corrupt. The first man was made in the image and likeness of God, which not only implies man's superiority to all other creatures, but indicates his original purity, integrity and sanctity. From this state Adam fell, and in his fall involved the whole human race descended from him. Hence depravity and corruption, diffused through all parts of the soul, attach to all men, and this first makes them obnoxious to the anger of God, and then comes forth in works which the Scripture calls works of the flesh (Gal. y. 19). Thus all are held vitiated and perverted in all parts of their nature, and on account of such corruption deservedly con- demned before God, by whom nothing is accepted save righteousness innocence, and purity. Nor is that a being bound foranother's offence ; for when it is said that we through Adam's sin have become ob- noxious to the divine judgment, ic is not to be taken as if we, being ourselves innocent and blameless, bear the fault of his offence, but that, we having been brought under a curse through his trans- gression, he is said to have bound us. From him, however, not only has punishment overtaken us, but a pestilence instilled from him resides in us, to which punishment is justly due. Thus even infants, whilst they bring their own condemnation with them from their mother's womb, are bound not by another's but by their own fault. For though they have not yet brought forth the fruits of their iniquity, they have the seed shut up in them ; nay, their whole nature is a sort of seed of sin, therefore it cannot but be hateful and abomin- able to God (Instil, bk. ii. ch. i. sect. 8). To redeem man from this state of guilt, and to recover him from corruption, the Son of God became incarnate, assuming man's nature into union with His own, so that in Him were two natures in one person. Thus incarnate He took on Him the offices of prophet, priest and king, and by His humiliation, obedience and suffering unto death, followed by His resurrection and ascension to heaven, He has perfected His work and fulfilled all that was required in a redeemer of men, so that it is truly affirmed that He has merited for man the grace of salvation (bk. ii. ch. 13-17). But until a man is in some way really united to Christ so as to partake of Him, the benefits of Christ's work cannot be attained by him. Now it is by the secret and special operation of the Holy Spirit that men are united to Christ and made members of His body. Through faith, which is a firm and certain cognition of the divine benevolence towards us founded on the truth of the gracious promise in Christ, men are by the operation of the Spirit united to Christ and are made partakers of His death and resurrection, so that the old man is crucified with Him and they are raised to a new life, a life of righteous- ness and holiness. Thus joined to Christ the believer has life in Him and knows that he is saved, having the witness of the Spirit that he is a child of God, and having the promises, the certitude of which the Spirit had before impressed on the mind, sealed by the same Spirit on the heart (bk. iii. ch. 33-36). From faith proceeds repentance, which is the turning of our life to God, proceeding from a sincere and earnest fear of God, and consisting in the mortification of the flesh and the old man within us and a vivification of the Spirit. Through faith also the believer receives justification, his sins are forgiven, he is accepted of God, and is held by Him as righteous, the righteousness of Christ being imputed to him, and faith being the instrument by which the man lays hold on Christ, so that with His righteousness the man appears in God's sight as righteous. This imputed righteousness, however, is not disjoined from real personal righteousness, for regeneration and sanctification come to the believer from Christ no less than justification; the two blessings are not to be confounded, but neither are they to be dis- joined. The assurance which the believer has of salvation he receives from the operation and witness of the Holy Spirit; but this again rests on the divine choice of the man to salvation; and this falls back on God's eternal sovereign purpose, whereby He has predestined some to eternal life while the rest of mankind are predestined to condemnation arid eternal death. Those whom God has chosen to life He effectually calls to salvation, and they are kept by Him in progressive faith and holiness unto the end (bk. iii. passim). The external means or aids by which God unites men into the fellowship of Christ, and sustains and advances those who believe, are the church and its ordinances, especially the sacra- ments. The church universal is the multitude gathered from diverse nations, which though divided by distance of time and place, agree in one common faith, and it is bound by the tie of the same religion ; and wherever the word of God is sincerely preached, and the sacra- ments are duly administered, according to Christ's institute, there beyond doubt is a church of the living God (bk. iv. ch. I, sect. 7-11). The permanent officers in the church are pastors and teachers, to the former of whom it belongs to preside over the discipline of the church, to administer the sacraments, and to admonish and exhort the members; while the latter occupy themselves with the exposition of Scripture, so that pure and wholesome doctrine may be retained. With them are to be joined for the government of the church certain pious, grave and holy men as a senate in each church ; and to others, as deacons, is to be entrusted the care of the poor. The election of the officers in a church is to be with the people, and those duly chosen and called are to be ordained by the laying on of the hands of the pastors (ch. 3, sect. 4-16). The sacraments are two — Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism is the sign of initiation whereby men are admitted into the society of the church and, being grafted into Christ, are reckoned among the sons of God; it serves both tor the confirmation of faith and as a confession before men. The Lord's Supper is a spiritual feast where Christ attests that He is the life-giving bread, by which our souls are fed unto true and blessed immortality. That sacred communication of His flesh and blood whereby Christ transfuses into us His life, even as if it penetrated into our bones and marrow, He in the Supper attests and seals; and that not by a vain or empty sign set before us, but there He puts forth the efficacy of His Spirit whereby He fulfils what He promises. In the mystery of the Supper Christ is truly exhibited to us by the symbols of bread and wine ; and so His body and blood, in which He fulfilled all obedience for the obtaining of righteousness for us, are presented. There is no such presence of Christ in the Supper as that He is affixed to the bread or included in it or in any way circumscribed; but whatever can express the true and sub- stantial communication of the body and blood of the Lord, which is exhibited to believers under the said symbols of the Supper, is to be received, and that not as perceived by the imagination only or mental intelligence, but as enjoyed for the aliment of the eternal life (bk. iv. ch. 15, 17). The course of time has substantially modified many of these positions. Even the churches which trace their descent from Calvin's work and faith no longer hold in their entirety his views on the magistrate as the preserver of church purity, the utter de- pravity of human nature, the non-human character of the Bible, the dealing of God with man. But his system had an immense value in the history of Christian thought. It appealed to and evoked a high order of intelligence, and its insistence on personal individual salvation has borne worthy fruit. So also its insistence on the chief end of man " to know and do the will of God " made for the strenuous morality that helped to build up the modern world. Its effects are most clearry seen in Scotland, in Puritan England and in the New England states, but its influence was and is felt among peoples that have little desire or claim to be called Calvinist. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The standard edition of Calvin's works is that undertaken by the Strassburg scholars, I. W. Baum, E. Cunitz, E. Reuss. P. Lobstein, A. Erichson (59 vofs., 1863-1900). The last of these contains an elaborate bibliography which was also published separately at Berlin in 1900. The bulk of the writings was published in English by the Calvin Translation Society (48 vols., Edinburgh, 1843-1855); the Institutes have often been translated. The early lives by Beza and Collodon are given in the collected editions. Among modern biographies are those by P. Henry, Das Leben J. Calvins (3 vols., Hamburg, 1835-1844; Eng. trans, by H. Stebbing, London and New York, 1849) ; V. Audin, Histoire de la vie, des outrages, et des doctrines de Calvin (2 vols., Paris', 1841 ; Eng. trans, by J. McGill, London, 1843 and 1850) unfairly antagonistic; T. H. Dyer, Life of John Calvin (London, 1850); E. Stahelin, Joh. Calvin, Leben und ausgewahlte Schriften (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1863); F. W Kampschulte, Joh. Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat in Genf (2 vols., 1869, 1899, unfinished); Abel Lefranc, La Jeunesse de Calvin (Paris, 1888) ; E. Choisy, La Theocratic a Geneve au temps de Calvin (Geneva, 1897); E. Doumergue, Jean Calvin; les hommes et les chases de son temps (5 vols., 1899-1908). See also A. M. Fair- bairn, " Calvin and the Reformed Church " in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii. (1904); P. Schaff's, History of the Christian Church, vol. vii. (1892), and R. Stahelin's article in Hauck-Herzog's Real- encyk. fur prot. Theologie und Kirche. Each of these contains a useful bibliography, as also does the excellent life by Professor Williston Walker, John Calvin, the Organizer of Reformed Protes- tantism, " Heroes of the Reformation " series (1906). See also C. S. Home in Mansfield Coll. Essays (1909). (W. L. A. ; A. J. G.) CALVINISTIC METHODISTS, a body of Christians forming a church of the Presbyterian order and claiming to be the only denomination in Wales which is of purely Welsh origin. Its beginnings may be traced to the labours of the Rev. Griffith Jones (1684-1761), of Llanddowror, Carmarthenshire, whose sympathy for the poor led him to set on foot a system of circu- lating charity schools for the education of children. In striking contrast to the general apathy of the clergy of the period, Oriffith Jones's zeal appealed to the public imagination, and his powerful preaching exercised a widespread influence, many CALVINISTIC METHODISTS 77 travelling long distances in order to attend his ministry. There was thus a considerable number of earnest people dispersed throughout the country waiting for the rousing of the parish clergy. An impressive announcement of the Easter Communion Service, made by the Rev. Pryce Davies, vicar of Talgarth, on the 3oth of March 1735, was the means of awakening Howell Harris (1714-1773) of Trcvecca, and he immediately began to hold services in his own house. He was soon invited to do the same at the houses of others, and ended by becoming a 6ery itinerant preacher, stirring to the depths every neighbour- hood he visited. Griffith Jones, preaching at Llanddcwi Brcfi, Cardiganshire — the place at which the Welsh Patron Saint, David, first became famous — found Daniel Rowland (17 13-1790), curate of LJangcitho, in his audience, and his patronizing attitude in listening drew from the preacher a personal supplication on his behalf, in the middle of the discourse. Rowland was deeply moved, and became an ardent apostle of the new movement. Naturally a fine orator, his new-born zeal gave an edge to his eloquence, and his fame spread abroad. Rowland and Harris had been at work fully eighteen months before they met, at a service in Devynock church, in the upper part of Breconshire. The acquaintance then formed lasted to the end of Harris's life — an interval of ten years excepted. Harris had been sent to Oxford in the autumn of 1735 to " cure him of his fanaticism," but he left in the following February. Rowland had never been to a university, but, like Harris, he had been well grounded in general knowledge. About 1739 another prominent figure appeared. This was Howell Davies of Pembrokeshire, whose ministry was modelled on that of his master, Griffith Jones, but with rather more clatter in his thunder. In 1736, on returning home, Harris opened a school, Griffith Jones supplying him with books from his charity. He also set up societies, in accordance with the recommendations in Josiah Wedgwood's little book on the subject; and these exercised a great influence on the religious life of the people. By far the most notable of Harris's converts was William Williams (1717- 1791), Pant y Celyn, the great hymn-writer of Wales, who while listening to the revivalist preaching on a tombstone in the graveyard of Talgarth, heard the " voice of heaven," and was " apprehended as by a warrant from on high." He was ordained deacon in the Church of England, 1740, but Whitefield recom- mended him to leave his curacies and go into the highways and hedges. On Wednesday and Thursday, January 5th and 6th, 1743, the friends of aggressive Christianity in Wales met at Wadford, near Cacrphilly, Glam., in order to organize their societies. George Whitefield was in the chair. Rowland, Williams and John Powell — afterwards of Llanmartin — (clergymen), Harris, John Humphreys and John Cennick (laymen) were present. Seven lay exhortcrs were also at the meetings; they were questioned as to their spiritual experience and allotted their several spheres; other matters pertaining to the new conditions created by the revival were arranged. This is known as the first Methodist Association — held eighteen months before John Wesley's first conference (June 25th, 1744). Monthly meetings covering smaller districts, were organized to consider local matters, the transactions of which were to be reported to the Quarterly Association, to be confirmed, modified, or rejected. Exhorters were divided into two classes — public, who were allowed to itinerate as preachers and superintend a number of societies; private, who were confined to the charge of one or two societies. The societies were distinctly understood to be part of the established church, as Wedgwood's were, and every attempt at estranging them therefrom was sharply reproved; but persecution made their position anomalous. They did not accept the discipline of the Church of England, so the plea of conformity was a feeble defence; nor had they taken out licenses, so as to claim the protection of the Toleration Act. Harris's ardent loyalty to the Church of England, after three refusals to ordain him, and his personal contempt for ill-treatment from persecutors, were the only things that prevented separation. A controversy on a doctrinal point — " Did God die on Calvary? " — raged for some time, the principal disputants being Rowland and Harris; and in 1751 it ended in an open rupture, which threw the Connexion first into confusion and then into a state of coma. Tin- sorictii's split up into Harrisites and Rowlandites, and it was only with the revival of 1762 that the breach was fairly repaired. This revival is a landmark in the history of the Connexion. Williams of Pant y Celyn had just published a little volume of hymns, the singing of which inflamed the people. This led the bishop of St David's to suspend Rowland's license, and Rowland had to confine himself to a meeting-house at Llangeitho. Having been turned out of other churches, he had leased a plot of land in 1759, anticipating the final withdrawal of his license, in 1763, and a spacious building was erected to which the people crowded from all parts on Sacrament Sunday. Llangeitho became the Jerusalem of Wales, and Rowland's popularity never waned until his physical powers gave way. A notable event in the history of Welsh Methodism was the publication in 1770, of a 4to annotated Welsh Bible by the Rev. Peter Williams, a forceful preacher, and an indefatigable worker, who had joined the Methodists in 1746, after being driven from several curacies. It gave birth to a new interest in the Scriptures, being the first definite commentary in the language. A powerful revival broke out at Llangeitho in the spring of 1780, and spread to the south, but not to the north of Wales. The ignorance of the people of the north made it very difficult for Methodism to benefit from these manifestations, until the advent of the Rev. Thomas Charles (1755-1814), who, having spent five years in Somersetshire as curate of several parishes, returned to his native land to marry Sarah Jones of Bala. Failing to find employment in the established church, he joined the Methodists in 1784. His circulating charity schools and then his Sunday schools gradually made the North a new country. In 1791 a revival began at Bala; and this, strange to say, a few months after the Bala Association had been ruffled by the proceedings which led to the expulsion of Peter Williams from the Connexion, in order to prevent him from selling John Canne's Bible among the Methodists, because of some Sabellian marginal notes. In 1790, the Bala Association passed " Rules regarding the proper mode of conducting the Quarterly Association," drawn up by Charles; in 1801, Charles and Thomas Jones of Mold, published (for the association) the " Rules and Objects of the Private Societies among the People called Methodists." About '795. persecution led the Methodists to take the first step towards separation from the Church of England. Heavy fines made it impossible for preachers in poor circumstances to continue without claiming the protection of the Toleration Act, and the meeting-houses had to be registered as dissenting chapels. In a large number of cases this had only been delayed by so con- structing the houses that they were used both as dwellings and as chapels at one and the same time. Until 1811 the Calvin- istic Methodists had no ministers ordained by themselves; their enormous growth in numbers and the scarcity of ministers to administer the Sacrament — only three in North Wales, two of whom had joined only at the dawn of the century — made the question of ordination a matter of urgency. The South Wales clergy who regularly itinerated were dying out; the majority of those remaining itinerated but irregularly, and were most of them against the change. The lay element, with the help of Charles and a few other stalwarts, carried the matter through — ordaining nine at Bala in June, and thirteen at Llandilo in August. In 1823, the Confession of Faith was published; it is based on the Westminster Confession as Calvinistically construed," and contains 44 articles. The Connexion's Constitutional Deed was formally completed in 1826. Thomas Charles had tried to arrange for taking over Trevecca College when the trustees of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion removed their seminary to Cheshunt in 1791 ; but the Bala revival broke out just at the time, and, when things grew quieter, other matters pressed for attention. A college had been mooted in 1816, but the intended tutor died suddenly, and the matter was for the time dropped. Candidates for the Connex- ional ministry were compelled to shift for themselves until 1837, CALVISIUS— CALW when Lewis Edwards (1809-1887) and David Charles (1812- 1878) opened a school for young men at Bala. North and South alike adopted it as their college, the associations contributing a hundred guineas each towards the education of their students. In 1842, the South Wales Association opened a college at Trevecca, leaving Bala to the North; the Rev. David Charles became principal of the former, and the Rev. Lewis Edwards of the latter. After the death of Dr Lewis Edwards, Dr. T. C. Edwards resigned the principalship of the University College at Aberystwyth to become head of Bala (1891), now a purely theological college, the students of which were sent to the university colleges for their classical training. In 1 90 5 Mr David Davies of Llandinam — one of the leading laymen in the Connexion — offered a large building at Aberystwyth as a gift to the denomination for the purpose of uniting North and South in one theological college; but in the event of either association declining the proposal, the other was permitted to take possession, giving the association that should decline the option of joining at a later time. The Association of the South accepted, and that of the North declined, the offer; Trevecca College was turned into a preparatory school on the lines of a similar institution set up at Bala in 1891. The missionary collections of the denomination were given to the London Missionary Society from 1798 to 1840, when a Connexional Society was formed; and no better instances of missionary enterprise are known than those of the Khasia and Jaintia Hills, and the Plains of Sylhet in N. India. There has also been a mission in Brittany since 1842. The constitution of the denomination (called in Welsh, " Hen Gorph," i.e. the Old Body) is a mixture of Presbyterianism and Congregationalism; each church manages its own affairs and reports (i) to the district meeting, (2) to the monthly meeting, the nature of each report determining its destination. The monthly meetings are made up of all the officers of the churches comprised in each, and are split up into districts for the purpose of a more local co-operation of the churches. The monthly meetings appoint delegates to the quarterly Associations, of which all officers are members. The Associations of North and South are distinct institutions, deliberating and determining matters pertaining to them in their separate quarterly gatherings. For the purpose of a fuller co-operation in matters common to both, a general assembly (meeting once a year) was established in 1864. This is a purely deliberative conclave, worked by committees, and all its legislation has to be confirmed by the two Associations before it can have any force or be legal. The annual conference of the English churches of the denomination has no legislative standing, and is meant for social and spiritual intercourse and discussions. In doctrine the church is Calvinistic, but its preachers are far from being rigid in this particular, being warmly evangelical, and, in general, distinctly cultured. The London degree largely figures on the Connexional Diary; and now the Welsh degrees, in arts and divinity, are being increasingly achieved. It is a remarkable fact that every Welsh revival, since 1735, has broken out among the Calvinistic Methodists. Those of 1735, 1762, 1780 and 1791 have been mentioned; those of 1817, 1832, 1859 and 1904-1905 were no less powerful, and their history is inter- woven with Calvinistic Methodism, the system of which is so admirably adapted for the passing on of the torch. The minis- terial system is quite anomalous. It started in pure itineracy; the pastorate came in very gradually, and is not yet in universal acceptance. The authority of the pulpit of any individual church is in the hands of the deacons; they ask the pastor to supply so many Sundays a year — from twelve to forty, as the case may be — and they then fill the remainder with any preacher they choose. The pastor is paid for his pastoral work, and receives his Sunday fee just as a stranger does; his Sundays from home he fills up at the request of deacons of other churches, and it is a breach of Connexional etiquette for a minister to apply for engage- ments, no matter how many unfilled Sundays he may have. Deacons and preachers make engagements seven or eight years in advance. The Connexion provides for English residents wherever required, and the English ministers are oftener in their own pulpits than their Welsh brethren. The Calvinistic Methodists form in some respects the strongest church in Wales, and its forward movement, headed by Dr. John Pugh of Cardiff, has brought thousands into its fold since its establishment in 1891. Its Connexional Book Room, opened in 1891, yields an annual profit of from £1600 to £2000, the profits being devoted to help the colleges and to establish Sunday school libraries, etc. Its chapels in 1907 numbered 1641 (with accommodation for 488,080), manses 229; its churches1 num- bered 1428, ministers 921, unordained preachers 318, deacons 6179; its Sunday Schools 1731, teachers 27,895, scholars 193,460, communicants 189,164, total collections for religious purposes £300,912. The statistics of the Indian Mission are equally good: communicants 8027, adherents 26,787, missionaries 23, native ministers (ordained) 15, preachers (not ordained) 60. The Calvinistic Methodists are intensely national in sentiment and aspirations, beyond all suspicion loyalists. They take a great interest in social, political and educational matters, and are prominent on public bodies. They support the Eisteddfod as the promoter and inspirer of arts, letters and music, and are con- spicuous among the annual prize winners. They thus form a living, democratic body, flexible and progressive in its movements, yet with a sufficient proportion of conservatism both in religion and theology to keep it sane and safe. (D. E. J.) CALVISIUS, SETHUS (1556-1615), German chronologer, was born of a peasant family at Gorschleben in Thuringia on the 2ist of February 1556. By the exercise of his musical talents he earned money enough for the start, at Helmstadt, of an university career, which the aid of a wealthy patron enabled him to continue at Leipzig. He became director of the music-school at Pforten in 1572, was transferred to Leipzig in the same capacity in 1594, and retained this post until his death on the 24th of November 1615, despite the offers successively made to him of mathematical professorships at Frankfort and Wittenberg . In his Opus Chronologicum (Leipzig, 1605, 7th ed. 1685) he expounded a system based on the records of nearly 300 eclipses. An ingenious, though ineffective, proposal for the reform of the calendar was put forward in his Elenchus Calendarii Gregoriani (Frankfort, 1612); and he published a book on music, Melodiae condendae ratio (Erfurt, 1592), still worth reading. For details see V. Schmuck's Leichenrede (1615); J. Bertuch's Chronicon Portense (1739); F. W. E. Rost's Oratio ad renovendam S. Calvisii memoriam (1805); J, G. Stallbaum's Nachrichten iiber die Cantoren an der Thomasschule (1842); Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic ; Poggendorff 's Biog.-Litterarisches Handworterbuch. CALVO, CARLOS (1824-1906), Argentine publicist and historian, was born at Buenos Aires on the 26th of February 1824, and devoted himself to the study of the law. In 1860 he was sent by the Paraguayan government on a special mission to London and Paris. Remaining in France, he published in 1863 his Der echo international teorico y practico de Euro pa y America, in two volumes, and at the same time brought out a French version. The book immediately took rank as one of the highest modern authorities on the subject, and by 1887 the first French edition had become enlarged to six volumes. Senor Calvo's next publications were of a semi-historical character. Between 1862 and 1869 he published in Spanish and French his great collection in fifteen volumes of the treaties and other diplomatic acts of the South American republics, and between 1864 and 1875 his Annales historiques de la revolution de I'Amerique latine, in five volumes. In 1884 he was one of the founders at the Ghent congress of the Institut de Droit International. In the following year he was Argentine minister at Berlin, and published his Dictionnaire du droit international public et prive in that city. Calvo died in May 1906 at Paris. CALW or KALW, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the Nagold, 34 m. S.W. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. (1905), 4943. It contains a Protestant and a Roman Catholic Church, two schools, missionary institution, and a fine 1 Adherents and members in scattered hamlets and attending different meeting-houses or chapels, often combine to form one society or church. CALYDON— CAMALDULIANS 79 public library. The industries include spinning and weaving operations in wool and cotton. Carpets, cigars and leather are also manufactured. The timber trade, chiefly with the Nether- lands, is important. The place is in favour as a health resort. The name of Calw appears first in 1037. In the middle ages the town was under the dominion of a powerful family of counts, whose possessions finally passed to Wurttemberg in 1345. In 1634 the town was taken by the Bavarians, and in 1692 by Ihe French. CALYDON (KoXi^uv), an ancient town of Actolia, according to Pliny, yj Roman m. from the sea, on the river Euenus. It was said to have been founded by Calydon, son of Aetolus; to have been the scene of the hunting, by Mcleager and other heroes, of the famous Calydonian boar, sent by Artemis to lay waste the tii-Kls; and to have taken part in the Trojan war. In historical times it is first mentioned (391 B.C.) as in the possession of the rans, who retained it for twenty years, by the assistance of the Lacedaemonian king, Agesilaus, notwithstanding the attacks of the Arcarnanians. After the battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.) it was restored by Epaminondas to the Aetolians. In the time of Pompey it was a town of importance; but Augustus removed its inhabitants to Nicopolis, which he founded to commemorate his victory at Actium (3 1 B.C.). The walls of Calydon are almost certainly to be recognized in the Kastro of Kurtaga. These comprise a circuit of over 2 m., with one large gate and five smaller ones, and are situated on a hill on the right or west bank of the Euenus. Remains of large terrace walls outside the town probably indicate the position of the temple of Artemis Laphria, whose gold and ivory statue was transferred to Patras, together probaDly with her ritual. This included a sacrifice in which all kinds of beasts, wild and tame, were driven into a wooden pyre and consumed. See W. M. Leake, Travels in N. Greece, i. p. 109, iii. pp. 533 sqq. ; W. J. Woodhouse, Actolia, pp. 95 sqq. (E. GR.) CALYPSO, in Greek mythology, daughter of Atlas (or Oceanus, or Nereus), queen of the mythical island of Ogygia. When Odysseus was shipwrecked on her shores, Calypso entertained the hero with great hospitality, and prevailed on him to remain with her seven years. Odysseus was then seized with a longing to return to his wife and home; Calypso's promise of eternal youth failed to induce him to stay, and Hermes was sent by Zeus to bid her release him. When he set sail, Calypso died of grief. (Homer, Odyssey, i. 50, v. 28, vii. 254; Apollodorus i. 2, 7.) CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486), Portuguese discoverer, the first European known to sight and enter the Congo, and to explore the West African coast between Cape St Catherine (2°S.) and Cape Cross (21° 50' S.) almost from the equator to Walfish Bay. When King John II. of Portugal revived the work of Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cam (about midsummer (?) 1482) to open up the African coast still further beyond the equator. The mouth of the Congo was now discovered (perhaps in August 1482), and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but only in fragments) erected on Shark Point; the great river was also ascended for a short distance, and intercourse was opened with the natives. Cam then coasted down along the present Angola (Portuguese West Africa), and erected a second pillar, probably marking the termination of this voyage, at Cape Santa Maria (the Monte Negro of these first visitors) in 13° 26' S. He certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April 1484, when John II. ennobled him, made him a cavalleiro of his house- hold (he was already an escudeiro or esquire in the same), and granted him an annuity and a coat of arms (8th and i4th of April 1484). That Cam, on his second voyage of 1485-1486, was accompanied by Martin Behaim (as alleged on the latter's Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very doubtful; but we know that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected two more pillars beyond the furthest of his previous voyage, the first at another ' Monte Negro "in 15° 41' S., the second at Cape Cross in 21° 50', this last probably marking the end of his progress southward. According to one authority (a legend on the 1489 map of Henricus Martellus German us), Cam died off Cape Cross; but Joao de Barros and others make him return to the Congo, and take thence a native envoy to Portugal. The four pillars set up by Cam on his two voyages have all been discovered in situ, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 respectively, are still to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross padr&o is now at Kiel (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile) ; those from the Congo estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are in the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society. See Barros, Decadas da Asia, Decade i. bk. iii., esp. ch. 3; Ruy de Pina, Chronica d' el Rei D. Joao II. ; Garcia de Resende, Chronica ; Luciano Cordeiro, " Diogo Cao" in Bolelim of the Lisbon Ceog. Soc., 1892; E. G. Ravenstein, "Voyages of Diogo Cao," &c., in Ceog. Jnl. vol. xvi. (1900) ; also Geog. Jnl. xxxi. (1908). (C. R. B.) CAMACHO, JUAN FRANCISCO (1824-1896), Spanish states- man and financier, was born in Cadiz in 1824. The first part of his life was devoted to mercantile and financial pursuits at Cadiz and then in Madrid, where he managed the affairs of and liquidated a mercantile and industrial society to the satisfaction and profit of the shareholders. In 1837 he became a captain in the national militia, in 1852 Conservative deputy in the Cortes for Alcoy, in 1853 secretary of congress, and was afterwards elected ten times deputy, twice senator and life senator in 1877. Camacho took a prominent part in all financial debates and committees, was offered a seat in the Mon cabinet of 1864, and was appointed under-secretary of state finances in 1866 under Canovas and O'Donnell. After the revolution of 1868 he declined the post of minister of finance offered by Marshal Serrano, but served in that capacity in 187 2 and 1874 in Sagasta's cabinets. When the restoration took place, Camacho sat in the Cortes among the dynastic Liberals with Sagasta as leader, and became finance minister in 1881 at a critical moment when Spain had to convert, reduce, and consolidate her treasury and other debts with a view to resuming payment of coupons. Camacho drew up an excellent budget and collected taxation with a decidedly unpopular vigour. A few years later Sagasta again made him finance minister under the regency of Queen Christina, bill had to sacrifice him when public opinion very clearly pronounced against his too radical financial reforms and his severity in collection of taxes. He was for the same reasons unsuccessful as a governor of the Tobacco Monopoly Company. He then seceded from the Liberals, and during the last years of his life he affected to vote with the Conservatives, who made him governor of the Bank of Spain. He died in Madrid on the 23rd of January 1896. (A. E. H.) CAMALDULIANS, or CAMALDOLESE, a religious order founded by St Romuald. Born of a noble family at Ravenna c. 950, he retired at the age of twenty to the Benedictine monastery of S. Apollinare in Classe; but being strongly drawn to the ere- mitical life, he went to live with a hermit in the neighbourhood of Venice and then again near Ravenna. Here a colony of hermits grew up around him and he became the superior. As soon as they were established in their manner of life, Romuald moved to another district and there formed a second settlement of hermits, only to proceed in the same way to the establishment of other colonies of hermits or " deserts " as they were called. In this way during the course of his life Romuald formed a great number of " deserts " throughout central Italy. His chief foundation was at Camaldoli on the heights of the Tuscan Apennines not far from Arezzo, in a vale snow-covered during half the year. Romuald's idea was to reintroduce into the West the primitive eremitical form of monachism, as practised by the first Egyptian and Syrian monks. His monks dwelt in separate huts around the oratory, and came together only for divine service and on certain days for meals. The life was one of extreme rigour in regard to food, clothing, silence and general observance. Besides the hermits there were lay brothers to help in carrying out the field work and rougher occupations. St Romua4d and the early Camaldolese exercised considerable influence on the religious movements of their time; the emperors Otto III. and Henry II. esteemed him highly and sought his advice on religious questions. Disciples of St Romuald went on missions to the still heathen parts of Russia, Poland and Prussia, where some of them suffered martyrdom. In his extreme old age St Romuald with twenty-five 8o CAMARGO— CAMBACERES of his monks started on a missionary expedition to Hungary, but he was unable to accomplish the journey. He died in 1027. After his death mitigations were gradually introduced into the rule and manner of life; and in the monastery of St Michael in Murano, Venice, the life became cenobitical. From that time to the present day there have always been both eremitical and cenobitical Camaldolese, the latter approximating to ordinary Benedictine life. The Camaldolese spread all over Italy, and into Germany, Poland and France. Camaldoli itself exists as a " desert," the primitive observance of the institute being strictly maintained. There are a few other " deserts," all in Italy, except one in Poland ; and there are about 90 hermits. The chief monastery of the cenobitical Camaldolese is S. Gregorio on the Caelian Hill in Rome; they number less than forty. Since the nth century there have been Camaldolese nuns; at present there are five nunneries with 1 50 nuns, all belonging to the cenobitical branch of the order. The habit of the Camaldulians is white. See Helyot, Hist, des ordres religieux (1792) v. cc. 21-25; Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896) i. § 29; and the art. " Camaldulenser " in Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed.), and Herzog, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed.). (E. C. B.) CAMARGO, MARIE ANNE DE CUPIS DE (1710-1770), French dancer, of Spanish descent, was born in Brussels on the 15th of April 1710. Her father, Ferdinand Joseph de Cupis, earned a scanty living as violinist and dancing-master, and from childhood she was trained for the stage. At ten years of age she was given lessons by Mile Franchise Prevost (1680-1741), then the first dancer at the Paris Opera, and at once obtained an engagement as premiere danseuse, first at Brussels and then at Rouen. Under her grandmother's family name of Camargo she made her Paris debut in 1726, and at once became the rage. Every new fashion bore her name; her manner of doing her hair was copied by all at court; her shoemaker — she had a tiny foot — made his fortune. She had many titled adorers whom she nearly ruined by her extravagances, among others Louis de Bourbon, comte de Clermont. At his wish she retired from the stage from 1736 to 1741. In her time she appeared in seventy-eight ballets or operas, always to the delight of the public. She was the first ballet-dancer to shorten the skirt to what afterwards became the regulation length. There is a charming portrait of her by Nicolas Lancret in the Wallace collection, London. CAMARGUE (Insula Camaria), a thinly-populated region of southern France contained wholly in the department of Bouches- du-Rhone, and comprising the delta of the Rhone. The Camargue is a marshy plain of alluvial formation enclosed between the two branches of the river, the Grand Rhone to the east and the Petit Rhone to the west. Its average elevation is from 6| to 8 ft. The Camargue has a coast-line some 30 m. in length and an area of 290 sq. m., of which about a quarter consists of cultivated and fertile land. This is in the north and on the banks of the rivers. The rest consists of rough pasture grazed by the black bulls and white horses of the region and by large flocks of sheep, or of marsh, stagnant water and waste land impregnated with salt. The region is inhabited by flocks of flamingoes, bustards, partridge, and by sea-birds of various kinds. The Etang de Vaccares, the largest of the numerous lagoons and pools, covers about 23 sq. m. ; it receives three main canals con- structed to drain off the minor lagoons. The Camargue is protected by dikes from the inundations both of the sea and of the rivers. Inlets in the sea-dike let in water for the purposes of the lagoon fisheries and the salt-pans; and the river- water is used for irrigation and for the submersion of vines. The climate is characterized by hard winters and scorching summers. Rain falls in torrents, but at considerable intervals. The mistral, blowing from the north and north-west, is the prevailing wind. The south-eastern portion of the Camargue is known as the He du Plan du Bourg. A secondary delta to the west of the Petit Rh6ne goes by the name of Petite Camargue. CAMARINA, an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the south coast, about 17 m. S.E. of Gela (Terranova). It was founded by Syracuse in 599 B.C., but destroyed by the mother city in 552 for attempting to assert its independence. Hippocrates of Gela received its territory from Syracuse and restored the town in 492, but it was destroyed by Gelon in 484; the Geloans, however, founded it anew in 461. It seems to have been in general hostile to Syracuse, but, though an ally of Athens in 427, it gave some slight help to Syracuse in 415-413. It was destroyed by the Carthaginians in 405, restored by Timoleon in 339 after its abandonment by Dionysius's order, but in 258 fell into the hands of the Romans. Its complete destruction dates from A.D. 853. The site of the ancient city is among rapidly shifting sandhills, and the lack of stone in the neighbourhood has led to its buildings being used as a quarry even by the inhabitants of Terranova, so that nothing is now visible above ground but a small part of the wall of the temple of Athena and a few founda- tions of houses; portions of the city wall have been traced by excavation, and the necropolis has been carefully explored (see J. Schubring in Philologus, xxxii. 490; P. Orsi in Monumenti del Lincei, ix. 201, 1899; xiv. 756, 1904). To the north lay the lake to which the answer of the Delphic oracle referred, /ii? Kivfi KafiapLvav, when the citizens inquired as to the advisability of draining it. CAMBACfiRES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE, duke of Parma (1753-1824), French statesman, was born at Montpellier on the i8th of October 1753. He was descended from a well-known family of the legal nobility (noblesse de la robe). He was designed for the magistracy of his province; and in 1771, when for a time the provincial parlement was suppressed, with the others, by the chancellor Maupeou, he refused to sit in the royal tribunal substituted for it. He continued, however, to study law with ardour, and in 1774 succeeded his father as councillor in the court of accounts and finances of his native town. Espousing the principles of the Revolution in 1789, he was commissioned by the noblesse of the province to draw up the cahier (statement of principles and grievances); and the senechaussee of Montpellier elected him deputy to the states-general of Versailles; but the election was annulled on a technical point. Nevertheless in 1792 the new department of Herault, in which Montpellier is situated, sent him as one of its deputies to the Convention which assembled and proclaimed the Republic in September 1792. In the strife which soon broke out between the Girondins and the Jacobins he took no decided part, but occupied himself mainly with the legal and legislative work which went on almost without intermission even during the Terror. The action of Cambaceres at the time of the trial of Louis XVI. (December 25, 1792-January 20, 1793) was characteristic of his habits of thought. At first he protested against the erection of the Convention into a tribunal in these words: " The people has chosen you to be legislators; it has not appointed you as judges." He also demanded that the king should have due facilities for his defence. Nevertheless, when the trial proceeded, he voted with the majority which declared Louis to be guilty, but recommended that the penalty should be postponed until the cessation of hostilities, and that the sentence should then be ratified by the Convention or by some other legislative body. It is therefore inexact to count him among the regicides, as was done by the royalists after 1815. Early in 1793 he became a member of the Committee of General Defence, but he did not take part in the work of its more famous successor, the Committee of Public Safety, until the close of the year 1794. In the meantime he had done much useful work, especially that of laying down, conjointly with Merlin of Douai, the principles on which the legislation of the revolutionary epoch should be codified. At the close of 1794 he also used his tact and eloquence on behalf of the restoration of the surviving Girondins to the Convention, from which they had been driven by the coup d'etat of the 3ist of May 1793. In the course of the year 1795, as president of the Committee of Public Safety, and as responsible especially for foreign affairs, he was largely instrumental in bringing about peace with Spain. Never- theless, not being a regicide, he was not appointed to be one of the five Directors to whom the control of public affairs was entrusted after the coup d'etat of Vendemiaire 1795; but, as before, his powers of judgment and of tactful debating soon carried him to the front in the council of Five Hundred. The CAMBALUC— CAMBAY 81 moderation of his views brought him into opposition to the Directors after the coup d'ttat of Fructidor (September 1707), and for a time he retired into private life. Owing, however, to the influence of Sieves, he became minister of justice in July 1709. He gave a guarded support to Bonaparte and Sieves in their enterprise of overthrowing the Directory (coup d'ttat of Brunuire 1799). Alter a short interval Cambaceres was, by the constitution of mber 1709, appointed second consul of France — a position which he owed largely to his vast legal knowledge and to the conviction which Sieves entertained of his value as a mani- pulator of public assemblies. It is impossible here to describe in detail his relations to Napoleon, and the part which he played in the drawing up of the Civil Code, later on called the Code Napoleon. It must suffice to say that the skilful intervention of Cambaceres helped very materially to ensure to Napoleon the consulship for life (August i, 1802); but the second consul is known to have disapproved of some of the events which followed, notably the execution of the due d'Enghien, the rupture with England, and the proclamation of the Empire (May 19, 1804). This last occurrence ended his title of second consul; it was replaced by that of arch-chancellor of the Empire. To him was decreed the presidence of the Senate in perpetuity. He also became a prince of the Empire and received in 1808 the title duke of Parma. Apart from the important part which he took in helping to co-ordinate and draft the Civil Code, Cambac6res did the state good service in many directions, notably by seeking to curb the impetuosity of the emperor, and to prevent enterprises so fatal as the intervention in Spanish affairs (1808) and the invasion of Russia (1812) proved to be. At the close of the campaign of 1814 he shared with Joseph Bonaparte the responsi- bility for some of the actions which zealous Bonapartists have deemed injurious to the fortunes of the emperor. In 1815, during the Hundred Days, he took up his duties reluctantly at the bidding of Napoleon; and after the second downfall of his master, he felt the brunt of royalist vengeance, being for a time exiled from France. A decree of i3th May 1818 restored him to his civil rights as a citizen of France; but the last six years of his life he spent in retirement. He was a member of the Academy till the 3 ist of March 1816, when a decree of exclusion was passed. In demeanour he was quiet, reserved and tactful, but when occasion called for it he proved himself a brilliant orator. He was a celebrated gourmet, and his dinners were utilized by Napoleon as a useful adjunct to the arts of statecraft. See A. Aubriet, Vie de Cambaceres (2nd ed., Paris, 1825). (J- HL. R.) CAMBALUC, the name by which, under sundry modifications, the royal city of the great khan in China became known to Europe during the middle ages, that city being in fact the same that we now know as Peking. The word itself represents the Mongol Khan-Balik, " the city of the khan," or emperor, the title by which Peking continues, more or less, to be known to the Mongols and other northern Asiatics. A city occupying approximately the same site had been the capital of one of the principalities into which China was divided some centuries before the Christian era; and during the reigns of the two Tatar dynasties that immediately preceded the Mongols in northern China, viz. that of the Khitans, and of the Kin or " Golden " khans, it had been one of their royal residences. Under the names of Yenking, which it received from the Khitan, and of Chung-tu. which it had from the Kin, it holds a conspicuous place in the wars of Jenghiz Khan against the latter dynasty. He captured it in 1 2 1 5, but it was not till 1 284 that it was adopted as the imperial residence in lieu of Karakorum in the Mongol steppes by his grandson Kublai. The latter selected a position a few hundred yards to the north-east of the old city of Chung-tu or Yenking, where he founded the new city of Ta-tu (" great capital "). called by the Mongols Taidu or Daitu, but also Khan- Balik; and from this time dates the use of the latter name as applied to this site. The new city formed a rectangle, enclosed by a colossal mud rampart, the longer sides of which ran north and south. These were each about sJ English m. in length, the shorter sides 3} m., so that the circuit was upwards of 18 m. The palace of the khan, with its gardens and lake, itself formed an inner enclosure fronting the south. There were eleven city gates, viz. three on the south side, always the formal front with the Tatars, and two on each of the other sides; and the streets ran wide and straight from gate to gate (except, of course, where interrupted by the palace walls), forming an oblong chess-board plan. Ta-tu continued to be the residence of the emperors till the fall of the Mongol power (1368). The native dynasty (Ming) which supplanted them established their residence at Nan-king (" South Court "), but this proved so inconvenient that Yunglo, the third sovereign of the dynasty, reoccupied Ta-tu, giving it then, for the first time, the name of Pe-king (" North Court "). This was the name in common use when the Jesuits entered China towards the end of the i6th century, and began to send home accurate information about China. But it is not so now; the names in ordinary use being King-cheng or King-tu, both signifying " capital." The restoration of Cambaluc was com- menced in 1409. The size of the city was diminished by the retrenchment of nearly one-third at the northern end, which brought the enceinte more nearly to a square form. And this constitutes the modern (so-called) " Tatar city " of Peking, the south front of which is identical with the south front of the city of Kublai. The walls were completed in 1437. Population gathered about the southern front, probably using the material of the old city of Yenking, and the excrescence so formed was, in 1544, enclosed by a wall and called the "outer city." It is the same that is usually called by Europeans " the Chinese city." The ruins of the retrenched northern portion of Kublai's great rampart are still prominent along their whole extent, so that there is no room for question as to the position or true dimensions of the Cambaluc of the middle ages; and it is most probable, indeed it is almost a necessity, that the present palace stands on the lines of Kublai's palace. The city, under the name of Cambaluc, was constituted into an archiepiscopal see by Pope Clement V. in 1307, in favour of the missionary Franciscan John of Montecorvino (d. 1330); but though some successors were nominated it seems probable that no second metropolitan ever actually occupied the seat. Maps of the i6th and i7th centuries often show Cambaluc in an imaginary region to the north of China, a part of the miscon- ception that has prevailed regarding Cathay. The name is often in popular literature written Cambalu, and is by Longfellow accented in verse Cdmh&lH. But this spelling originates in an accidental error in Ramusio's Italian version, which was the chief channel through which Marco Polo's book was popularly known. The original (French) MSS. all agree with the etymology in calling it Cambaluc, which should be accented CUmbdluc. CAMBAY, a native state of India, within the Gujarat division of Bombay. It has an area of 350 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 75,225, showing a decrease of 16% in the decade, due to the famine of 1899-1000. The estimated gross revenue is £27,189; the tribute, £1460. In physical character Cambay is entirely an alluvial plain. As a separate state it dates only from about 1730, the time of the dismemberment of the Mogul empire. The present chiefs are descended from Momin Khan II., the last of the governors of Gujarat, who in 1742 murdered his brother-in-law, Nizam Khan, governor of Cambay, and established himself there. The town of CAMBAY had a population in 1901 of 31,780. It is supposed to be the Camanes of Ptolemy, and was formerly a very flourishing city, the seat of an extensive trade, and cele- brated for its manufactures of silk, chintz and gold stuffs; but owing principally to the gradually increasing difficulty of access by water, owing to the silting up of the gulf, its commerce has long since fallen away, and the town has become poor and dilapidated. The spring tides rise upwards of 30 ft., and in a channel usually so shallow form a serious danger to shipping. The trade is chiefly confined to the export of cotton. The town is celebrated for its manufacture of agate and carnelian ornaments, of reputation principally in China. The houses in many instances are built of stone (a circumstance which indicates the former 82 CAMBAY, GULF OF— CAMBODIA wealth of the city, as the material had to be brought from a very considerable distance); and remains of a brick wall, 3 m. in circumference, which formerly surrounded the town, enclose four large reservoirs of good water and three bazaars. To the south- east there are very extensive ruins of subterranean temples and other buildings half-buried in the sand by which the ancient town was overwhelmed. These temples belong to the Jains, and contain two massive statues of their deities, the one black, the other white. The principal one, as the inscription intimates, is Pariswanath, or Parswanath, carved in the reign of the emperor Akbar; the black one has the date of 1651 inscribed. In 1780 Cambay was taken by the army of General Goddard, was restored to the Mahrattas in 1 783, and was afterwards ceded to the British by the peshwa under the treaty of 1803. It was provided with a railway in 1901 by the opening of the n m. required to connect with the gaekwar of Baroda's line through Petlad. CAMBAY, GULF OF, an inlet in the coast of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay. It is about 80 m. in length, but is shallow and abounds in shoals and sandbanks. It is supposed that the depth of water in this gulf has been decreasing for more than two centuries past. The tides, which are very high, run into it with amazing velocity, but at low water the bottom is left nearly dry for some distance below the latitude of the town of Cambay. It is, however, an important inlet, being the channel by which the valuable produce of central Gujarat and the British districts of Ahmedabad and Broach is exported; but the railway from Bombay to Baroda and Ahmedabad, near Cambay, has for some time past been attracting the trade to itself. CAMBER (derived through the Fr. from Lat. camera, vault),' in architecture, the upward curvature given to a beam and provided for the depression or sagging, which it is liable to, before it has settled down to its bearings. A " camber arch " is a slight rise given to the straight-arch to correct an apparent sinking in the centre (see ARCH). CAMBERT, ROBERT (1628-1677), French operatic composer, was born in Paris in 1628. He was a pupil of Chambonnieres. In 1655, after he had obtained the post of organist at the church of St Honore, he married Marie du Moustier. He was musical superintendent to Queen Anne of Austria, mother of Louis XIV., and for a time held a post with the marquis de Sourdeac. His earlier works, the words of which were furnished by Pierre Perrin, continued to be performed before the court at Vincennes till the death of his patron Cardinal Mazarin. In 1669 Perrin received a patent for the founding of the Academie Nationale de musique, the germ of the Grand Opera, and Cambert had a share in the administration until both he and Perrin were discarded in the interests of Lulli. Displeased at his subsequent neglect, and jealous of the favour shown to Lulli, who was musical superintendent to the king, he went in 1673 to London, where soon after his arrival he was appointed master of the band to Charles II. One at least of his operas, Pontone, was performed in London under his direction, but it did not suit the p-pular taste, and he is supposed to have killed himself in London in 1677. His other principal operas were Ariadne ou les amours de Bacchus and Les Peines el les plaisirs de V amour. CAMBERWELL, a southern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N. by Southwark and Bermondsey, E. by Deptford and Lewisham, W. by Lambeth, and extending S. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901) 259,339. Area, 4480 acres. It appears in Domesday, but the derivation of the name is unknown. It includes the districts of Peckham and Nunhead, and Dulwich (q.v.) with its park, picture-gallery and schools. Camberwell is mainly residential, and there are many good houses, pleasantly situated in Dulwich and south- ward towards the high ground of Sydenham. Dulwich Park (72 acres) and Peckham Rye Common and Park (113 acres) are the largest of several public grounds, and Camberwell Green was once celebrated for its fairs. Immediately outside the southern boundary lies a well-known place of recreation, the Crystal Palace. Among institutions may be mentioned the Camberwell school of arts and crafts, Peckham Road. In Camberwell Road is Cambridge House, a university settlement, founded in 1897 and incorporating the earlier Trinity settlement. The parliamentary borough of Camberwell has three divisions, North, Peckham and Dulwich, each returning one member; but is not wholly coincident with the municipal borough, the Dulwich division extending to include Penge, outside the county of London. The borough council consists of a mayor, ten aldermen, and sixty councillors. CAMBIASI, LUCA (1527-1585), Genoese painter, familiarly known as Lucchetto da Geneva (his surname is written also Cambiaso or Cangiagio), was born at Moneglia in the Genoese state, the son of a painter named Giovanni Cambiasi. He took to drawing at a very early age, imitating his father, and developed great aptitude for foreshortening. At the age of fifteen he painted, along with his father, some subjects from Ovid's Metamorphoses on the front of a house in Genoa, and afterwards, in conjunction with Marcantonio Calvi, a ceiling showing great daring of execution in the Palazzo Doria. He also formed an early friend- ship with Giambattista Castello; both artists painted together, with so much similarity of style that their works could hardly be told apart; from this friend Cambiasi learned much in the way of perspective and architecture. Luchetto's best artistic period lasted for twelve years after his first successes; from that time he declined in power, though not at once in reputation, owing to the agitations and vexations brought upon him by a passion which he conceived for his sister-in-law. His wife having died, and the sister-in-law having taken charge of his house and children, he endeavoured to procure a papal dispensation for marrying her; but in this he was disappointed. In 1583 he accepted an invitation from Philip II. to continue in the Escorial a series of frescoes which had been begun by Castello, now deceased; and it is said that one principal reason for his closing with this offer was that he hcped to bring the royal influence to bear upon the pope, but in this again he failed. Worn out with his disquietudes, he died in the Escorial in the second year of his sojourn. Cambiasi had an ardent fancy, and was a bold designer in a Raphaelesque mode. His extreme facility astonished the Spanish painters; and it is said that Philip II., watching one day with pleasure the offhand zest with which Luchetto was painting a head of a laughing child, was allowed the further surprise of seeing the laugh changed, by a touch or two upon the lips, into a weeping expression. The artist painted sometimes with a brush in each hand, and with a certainty equalling or transcending that even of Tintoret. He made a vast number of drawings, and was also something of a sculptor, executing in this branch of art a figure of Faith. Altogether he ranks as one of the ablest artists of his day. In personal character, nc twithstanding his executive energy, he is reported to have been timid and diffident. His son Orazio became likewise a painter, studying under Luchetto. The best works of Cambiasi are to be seen jn Genoa. In the church of S. Giorgio — the martyrdom of that saint; in the Palazzo Imperial! Terralba, a Genoese suburb — a fresco of the " Rape of the Sabines " ; in S. Maria da Carignano — a " Pieta," containing his own portrait and (according to tradition) that of his beloved sister-in- law. In the Escorial he executed several pictures; one is a Paradise on the vaulting of the church, with a multitude of figures. For this picture he received 12,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, up to that time, ever been given for a single work. CAMBODIA > (called by the inhabitants Sroc Khmer and by the French Cambodge), a country of south-eastern Asia and a pro- tectorate of France, forming part of French Indo-China. Geography. — It is bounded N. by Siam and Laos, E. by Annam, S.E. andS. by Cochin-China, S.W. by the Gulf of Siam, and W. by Siam. Its area is estimated at approximately 65,000 sq. m.; its population at 1,500,0x50, of whom some three-quarters are Cambodians, the rest Chinese, Annamese, Chams, Malays, and aboriginal natives. The whole of Cambodia lies in the basin of the lower Mekong, which, entering this territory on the north, flows south for some distance, then inclines south-west as far as Pnom-penh, where it spreads into a delta and resumes a southerly course. The salient feature of Cambodian geography is the large lake Tonle-Sao, in a depression 68 m. long from south-east to north-west and 1 5 m. wide. It is fed by several 1 See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH. CAMBODIA rivers and innumerable torrents, and at flood-time serves as a r voir (or the Mekong, with which it is connected by a channel some 70 m. long, known as the Bras du Lac and joining the river at I'nom-IVnh. In June thewatcrsof the Mekong.swollen by the rains and the melting of the Tibetan snows, rise to a height of 40 to 45 ft. and llow through the Bras du Lac towards the lake, which then covers an area of 770 sq. m., and like the river inundates the marshes and forests on its borders. During the dry season the current reverses and the depression empties so that the Like shrinks to an area of 100 sq. m., and its depth falls from 45-48 ft. to a maximum of 5 ft. Tonl£-Sap probably represents the chief wealth of Cambodia. It supports a fishing population of over 30,000, most of whom arc Annamcse; the fish, which are taken by means of large nets at the end of the inundation, are cither dried or fermented for the production of the sauce known as nuoc-mam. The northern and western provinces of Cambodia which fall outside the densely populated zone of inundation are thinly peopled; they consist of plateaus, in many places thickly wooded and intersected by mountains, the highest of which does not exceed 5000 ft. ' The region to the east of the Mekong is traversed by spurs of the mountains of Annum and by affluents of the Mekong, the most important of these bcjng the Se-khong and the Tonle-srepok, which unite to flow into the Mekong at Stung-treng. Small islands, inhabited by a fishing population, fringe the west coast. Climate, Fauna and Flora. — The climate of Cambodia, like that of Cochin China, which it closely resembles, varies with the monsoons. During the north-cast monsoon, from the middle of October to the middle of April, dry weather prevails and the thermometer averages from 77° to 80° F. During the south- west monsoon, from the middle of April to the middle of October, rain falls daily and the temperature varies between 85° and 95°. The wild animals of Cambodia include the elephant, which is also domesticated, the rhinoceros, buffalo and some species of wild ox; also the tiger, panther, leopard and honey-bear. Wild boars, monkeys and rats abound and are the chief enemies of the cultivator. The crocodile is found in the Mekong, and there are many varieties of reptiles, some of them venomous. The horse of Cambodia is only from 1 1 to 1 2 hands in height, but is strong and capable of great endurance; the buffalo is the chief draught animal. Swine are reared in large numbers. Nux vomica, gamboge, caoutchouc, cardamoms, teak and other valuable woods and gums are among the natural products. People. — The Cambodians have a far more marked affinity with their Siamese than with their Annamese neighbours. The race is probably the result of a fusion of the Malay aborigines of Indo-China with the Aryan and Mongolian invaders of the country. The men are taller and more muscular than the Siamese and Annamese, while the women are small and inclined to stoutness. The face is flat and wide, the nose short, the mouth large and the eyes only slightly oblique. The skin is dark brown , the hair black and. while in childhood the head is shaved with the exception of a small tuft at the top, in later life it is dressed so as to resemble a brush. Both sexes wear the langouti or loin- cloth, which the men supplement with a short jacket, the women with a long scarf draped round the figure or with a long clinging robe. Morose, superstitious, and given to drinking and gambling, the Cambodians are at the same time clean, fairly intelligent, proud and courageous. The wife enjoys a respected position and divorce may be demanded by either party. Polygamy is almost confined to the richer classes. Though disinclined to work, the Cambodians make good hunters and woodsmen. Many of them live on the borders of the Mekong and the great lake, in huts built upon piles or floating rafts. The religion of Cambodia is Buddhism, and involves great respect towards the dead; the worship of spirits or local genii is also wide-spread, and Brahman- ism is still maintained at the court. Monks or bonzes are very numerous; they live by alms and in return they teach the young to read, and superintend coronations, marriages, funerals and the other ceremonials which play a large part in the lives of the Cambodians. As in the rest of Indo-China, there is no hereditary nobility, but there exist castes founded on blood- relationship — the members of the royal family within the fifth degree (the Brah-Vansa) those beyond the fifth degree (Brah- \'iin), and the Bakou, who, as descendants of the ancient Brah- ni. ins, exercise certain official functions at the court. These castes, as well as the mandarins, who form a class by themselves, are exempt from tax or forced service. The mandarins are nominated by the king and their children have a position at court, and are generally chosen to fill the vacant posts in the admini- stration. Under the native regime the common people attached themselves to one or other of the mandarins, who in return granted them the protection of his influence. Under French rule, which has modified the old usages in many respects, local govern- ment of the Annamese type tends to supplant this feudal system. Slavery was abolished by a royal ordinance of 1897. Cambodian idiom bears a likeness to some of the aboriginal dialects of south Indo-China; it is agglutinate in character and rich in vowel-sounds. The king's language and the royal writing, and also religious words are, however, apparently of Aryan origin and akin to Pali. Cambodian writing is syllabic and com- plicated. The books (manuscripts) arc generally formed of palm- leaves upon which the characters are traced by means of a style. Industry and Commerce. — Iron, worked by the tribe of the Kouis, is found in the mountainous region. The Cambodians show skill in working gold and silver; earthenware, bricks, mats, fans and silk and cotton fabrics, are abo produced to some small extent, but fishing and the cultivation of rice and in a minor degree of tobacco, coffee, cotton, pepper, indigo, maize, tea and sugar are the only industries worthy of the name. Factories exist near Pnom-Penh for the shelling of cotton-seeds. The Cambodian is his own artificer and self-sufficing so far as his own needs are concerned. Rice, dried fish, beans, pepper and oxen are the chief elements in the export trade of the country, which is in the hands of Chinese. The native plays little or no part in commerce. Trade is carried on chiefly through Saigon in Cochin-China, Kampot, the only port of Cambodia, being accessible solely to coasting vessels. With the exception of the highway from Pnom-Penh (q.v.) the capital, to Kampot, the roads of Cambodia are not suited for vehicles. Pnom-Penh communicates regularly by the steamers of the " Messageries Fluviales " by way of the Mekong with Saigon. Administration. — At the head of the government is the king (raj). His successor is either nominated by himself, in which case he sometimes abdicates in his favour, or else elected by the five chief mandarins from among the Brah V'ansa. The upayu- vrdj (obbaioureach) or king who has abdicated, the heir-pre- sumptive (upardj, obbareach) and the first princess of the blood are high dignitaries with their own retinues. The king is advised by a council of five ministers, the superior members of the class of mandarins; and the kingdom is divided into about fifty provinces administered by members of that body. France is represented by a resident superior, who presides over the ministerial council and is the real ruler of the country, and by residents exercising supervision in the districts into which the country is split up for the purposes of the French administration. In each residential district there is a council, composed of natives and presided over by the resident, which deliberates on questions affecting the district. The resident superior is assisted by the protectorate council, consisting of heads of French administrative departments (chief of the judicial service, of public works, &c.) and one native " notable," and the royal orders must receive its sanction before they can be executed. The control of foreign policy, public works, the customs and the exchequer are in French hands, while the management of police, the collection of the direct taxes and the administration of justice between natives remain with the native government. A French tribunal alone is competent to settle disputes where one of the parties is not a native. The following is a summary of the local budget of Cambodia for 1899 and 1904: — Receipts. Expenditure. 1809 . . £235.329 £188,654 1904 . . 250,753 229,880 84 CAMBON, P. J. The chief sources of revenue are the direct taxes, including the poll-tax and the taxes on the products of the soil, which together amounted to £172,636 in 1904. The chief heads of expenditure are the civil list, comprising the personal allow- ance to the king and the royal family (£46,018 in 1904), public works (£39,593) and government house and residences (£29,977)- History. — The Khmers, the ancient inhabitants of Cambodia, are conjectured to have been the offspring of a fusion between the autochthonous dwellers in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, now represented by the Kouis and other savage tribes, and an invading race from the plateaus of central Asia. As early as the i2th century B.C., Chinese chronicles, which are almost the only source for the history of Cambodia till the 5th century A.D., mention a region called Fou-nan, in later times appearing under the name of Tchin-la; embracing the basin of the Menam, it extended east- wards to the Mekong and may be considered approximately coextensive with the Khmer kingdom. Some centuries before the Christian era, immigrants from the east coast of India began to exert a powerful influence over Cambodia, into which they introduced Brahmanism and the Sanskrit language. This Hindu- izing process became more marked about the 5th century A.D., when, under S'rutavarman, the Khmers as a nation rose into prominence. The name Kambuja, whence the European form Cambodia, is derived from the Hindu Kambu, the name of the mythical founder of the Khmer race; it seems to have been officially adopted by the Khmers as the title of their country about this period. At the end of the 7th century the dynasty of S'rutavarman ceased to rule over the whole of Cambodia, which during the next century was divided into two portions ruled over by two sovereigns. Unity appears to have been re-established about the beginning of the 9th century, when with Jayavarman III. there begins a dynasty which embraces the zenith of Khmer greatness and the era during which the great Brahman monu- ments were built. The royal city of Angkor-Thorn (see ANGKOR) was completed under Yasovarman about A.D. 900. In the joth century Buddhism, which had existed for centuries in Cambodia, began to become powerful and to rival Brahmanism, the official religion. The construction of the temple of Angkor Vat dates probably from the first half of the izth century, and appears to have been carried out under the direction of the Brahman Divakara, who enjoyed great influence under the monarchs of this period. The conquest of the rival kingdom of Champa, which embraced modern Cochin-China and southern Annam, and in the later 15th century was absorbed by Annam, may probably be placed at the end of the 1 2th century, in the reign of Jayavarman VIII., the last of the great kings. War was also carried on against the western neighbours of Cambodia, and the exhaustion consequent upon all these efforts seems to have been the immediate cause of the decadence which now set in. From the last decade of the i3th century there dates a valuable description of Tchin-la L written by a member of a Chinese embassy thereto. The same period probably also witnessed the liberation of the Thais or inhabitants of Siam from the yoke of the Khmers, to whom they had for long been subject, and the expulsion of the now declining race from the basin of the Menam. The royal chronicles of Cambodia, the historical veracity of which has often to be questioned, begin about the middle of the I4th century, at which period the Thais assumed the offensive and were able repeatedly to capture and pillage Angkor- Thorn. These aggressions were continued in the isth century, in the course of which the capital was finally abandoned by the Khmer kings, the ruin of the country being hastened by internal revolts and by feuds between members of the royal family. At the end of the i6th century, Lovek, which had succeeded Angkor-Thorn as capital, was itself abandoned to the conquerors. During that century, the Portuguese had established some influence in the country, whither they were followed by the Dutch, but after the middle of the i7th century, Europeans counted for little in Cambodia till the arrival of the French. At the beginning of the 1 Translated by Abel Remusat, Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques (1829). 1 7th century the Nguyen, rulers of southern Annam, began to encroach on the territory of Cochin-China, and in the course of that and the i8th century, Cambodia, governed by two kings supported respectively by Siam and Annam, became a field for the conflicts of its two powerful neighbours. At the end of the 1 8th century the provinces of Battambang and Siem-reap were annexed by Siam. The rivalries of the two powers were con- cluded after a last and indecisive war by the treaty of 1846, as a result of which Ang-Duong, the protege of Siam, was placed on the throne at the capital of Oudong, and the Annamese evacuated the country. In 1863, in order to counteract Siamese influence there, Doudart de Lagree was sent by Admiral la Grandiere to the court of King Norodom, the successor of Ang-Duong, and as a result of his efforts Cambodia placed itself under the protectorate of France. In 1866 Norodom transferred his capital to Pnom- Penh. In 1867 a treaty between France and Siam was signed, whereby Siam renounced its right to tribute and recognized the French protectorate over Cambodia in return for the provinces of Battambang and Angkor, and the Laos territory as far as the Mekong. In 1884 another treaty was signed by the king, con- firming and extending French influence, and reducing the royal authority to a shadow, but in view of the discontent aroused by it, its provisions were not put in force till several years later. In 1904 the territory of Cambodia was increased by the addition to it of the Siamese provinces of Melupre and Bassac, and the maritime district of Krat, the latter of which, together with the province of Dansai, was in 1907 exchanged for the provinces of Battambang, Siem-reap and Sisophon. By the same treaty France renounced its sphere of influence on the right bank. of the Mekong. In 1904 King Norodom was suc- ceeded by his brother Sisowath. See E. Aymonier, Le Cambodge (3 vols., Paris, 1900-1904); L. Moura, Le royaume de Cambodge (2 vols., Paris, 1883) ; A. Leclere, Les codes cambodgiens (2 vols., Paris, 1898), and other works on Cambodian law; Francis Gamier, Voyage d" exploration en Indo- Chine (Paris, 1873). CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1756-1820), French statesman, was the son of a wealthy cotton merchant at Montpellier. In 1785 his father retired, leaving the direction of the business to Pierre and his two brothers, but in 1788 Pierre turned aside to politics, and was sent by his fellow-citizens as deputy suppleant to Versailles, where he was little more than a spectator. In January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was elected a member of the municipality, was one of the founders of the Jacobin club in that city, and on the flight of Louis XVI. in 1791, he drew up a petition to invite the Constituent Assembly to proclaim a republic, — the first in date of such petitions. Elected to the Legislative Assembly, Cambon became notedforhisindependence, his honesty and his ability in finance. He was the most active member of the committee of finance and was often charged to verify the state of the treasury. Nothing could be more false than the common opinion that as a financier his sole expedient was to multiply the emissions of assignats. His remarkable speech of the 24th of November 1791 is a convincing proof of his sagacity. In politics, while he held aloof from the clubs, and even from parties, he was an ardent defender of the new institu- tions. On the 9th of February 1792, he succeeded in having a law passed sequestrating the possessions of the emigres, and de- manded, though in vain, the deportation of refractory priests to French Guiana. He was the last president of the Legislative Assembly. Re-elected to the Convention, he opposed the pre- tensions of the Commune and the proposed grant of money to the municipality of Paris by the state. He denounced Marat's placards as inciting to murder, summoned Danton to give an account of his ministry, watched carefully over the furnishing of military supplies, and was a strong opponent of Dumouriez, in spite of the general's great popularity. Cambon then incurred the hatred of Robespierre by proposing the suppression of the pay to the clergy, which would have meant the separation of church and state. His authority grew steadily. Ontheisthof December 1 792 he got the Convention to adopt a proclamation to all nations in favour of a universal republic. In the trial of CAMBON, P. P.— CAMBRAI Louis XVI. he voted for his death, without appeal or postpone- ment. He attempted to prevent the creation of the Revolution.! ry Tribunal, but when called to the first Committee of Public Safety he worked on it energetically to organize the armies. On the 3rd of February 1703 he had decreed the emission of 800 millions of assignats, for the expenses of the war. His courageous intervention in favour of the Girondists on the 2nd of June 1793 , il Robespierre as a pretext to prevent his re-election to the mince of Public Safety. But Cambon soon came to the conclusion that the security of France depended upon the triumph of the Mountain, and he did not hesitate to accord his active co- operation to the second committee. He took an active share in the various expedients of the government for stopping the depreciation of the ossignots. He was responsible, especially, for the great operation known as the opening of the Grand Litre (August 34), which was designed to consolidate the public debt by cancelling the stock issued under various conditions prior to the Revolution, and issuing new stock of a uniform character, so that all fund-holders should hold stock of the revolutionary gov- ernment and thus be interested in its stability. Each fund-holder was to be entered in the Great Book, or register of the public debt, for the amount due to him every year. The result of this measure was a rise in the face value of the assignats from 27 % to 48% by the end of the year. In matters of finance Cambon was now supreme; but his independence, his hatred of dictator- ship, his protests against the excesses of the Revolutionary Tribunal, won him Robespierre's renewed suspicion, and on the 8th Thennidor Robespierre accused him of being anti- revolutionary and an aristocrat. Cambon 's proud and vehement reply was the signal of the resistance to Robespierre's tyranny and the prelude to his fall. Cambon soon had reason to repent of that event, for he became one of those most violently attacked by the Thermidorian reaction. The royalist pamphlets and the journals of J. L. Tallien attacked him with fury as a former Mtmtagnard. He was charged with being responsible for the dis- credit of the assignats, and even accused of malversations. On the 2 1 st of February 1 795 the project which he presented to with- draw four milliards of assignats from circulation, was rejected, and on the 3rd of April he was excluded from the committee of finance. On the i6th Germinal, Tallien procured a decree of ac- cusation against him, but he was already in safety, taking refuge probably at Lausanne. In any case he does not seem to have re- mained in Paris, although in the riot of the ist Prairial some of the insurgents proclaimed him mayor. The amnesty of the 4th Bru- maire of the year IV. (the 5th of October 1795), permitted him to return to France, and he withdrew to his estate of Terral near Montpellier, where, during the White Terror, he had a narrow escape from an attempt upon his life. At first Cambon hoped to find in Bonaparte the saviour of the republic, but, deceived by the iSth Brumaire, he lived throughout the whole of the empire in peaceful seclusion. During the Hundred Days he was deputy for Herault in the chamber of representatives, and pronounced himself strongly against the return of the Bourbons, and for religious freedom. Under the Restoration the " amnesty " law of 1 816 condemned him as a regicide to exile, and he withdrew to Belgium, to St Jean-Ten-Noode, near Brussels, where he died on the isth of February 1820. (R. A. *) See Bornarel, Cambon (Paris). CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French diplomatist, was born on the zoth of January 1843. He was called to the Parisian bar, and became private secretary to Jules Ferry in the prefecture of the Seine. After ten years of administrative work in France as secretary of prefecture, and then as prefect succes- sively of the departments of Aube (1872), Doubs (1876), Nord (1877-1882), he exchanged into the diplomatic service, being nominated French minister plenipotentiary at Tunis. In 1886 he became French ambassador to Madrid; was transferred to Constantinople in 1890, and in 1808 to London. He was decor- ated with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. His brother, JULES MAXTIN CAMBON (1845- ), was called to the bar in 1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and entered the civil service in 1871. He was prefect of the depart- ment of Nord (1882) and of the Rhone (1887-1891), and in 1891 became governor-general of Algeria (see Guyot, L'ceuvre de M. Jules Cambon, Paris, 1897), where he had served in a minor position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the pre- liminaries of peace on behalf of the Spanish government after the war with the United States. He was transferred in 1902 to .Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin. CAMBORNE, a market town in the Camborne parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the Great Western railway, 13 m. E.N.E.of Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901), 14,726. It lies on the northward slope of the central elevation of the county, and is in the neighbourhood of some of the most pro- ductive tin and copper mines. These and the manufacture of mining machinery employ most of the inhabitants. The parish church of St Martin contains several monuments and an ancient stone altar bearing a Latin inscription. There are science and art and mining schools, and practical mining is taught in South Condurrow mine, the school attracting a large number of students. It was developed from classes initiated in 1859 by the Miners' Association, and a three years' course of instruction is provided. Camborne (Cambron, Camron) formed a portion of the ex- tensive manor of Tchidy, which at the time of the Domesday Survey was held by the earl of Mortain and subsequently by the Dunstanville and Basset families. Its interests were economic- ally insignificant until the beginning of the i8th century when the rich deposits of copper and tin began to be vigorously worked at Dolcoath. It has been estimated that in 1788 this mine alone had produced ore worth £2,000,000 and in 1882 ore worth £5,500,000. As the result of the prosperity of this and other mines in the neighbourhood the population in 1860 was double that of 1830, six times that of 1770 and fifteen times that of 1660. Camborne was the scene of the scientific labours of Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), the engineer, born in the neighbouring parish of Illogan, and of William Bickford, the inventor of the safety-fuse, a native of Camborne. Three fairs on the feasts of St Martin and St Peter and on 2 sth of February were granted in 1708. The two former are still held, the last has been transferred to the 7th of March. A Tuesday market formed the subject of a judicial inquiry in 1768, but since the middle of the 1 9th century it has been held on Saturdays. CAMBRAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Nord, 37 m. S.S.E. of Lille on the main line of the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,791. Cambrai is situated on the right and eastern bank of the Scheldt (arms of which traverse the west of the town) and at one extremity of the canal of St Quentin. The fortifications with which it was formerly surrounded have been for the most part demolished. The fosses have been filled up and the ramparts in part levelled to make way, as the suburbs extended, for avenues stretching out on all sides. The chief survivals from the demolition are the huge square citadel, which rises to the east of the town, the chateau de Selles, a good specimen of the military architecture of the I3th century, and, among other gates, the Porte Notre-Dame, a stone and brick structure of the early i7th century. Handsome boulevards now skirt the town, the streets of which are clean and well-ordered, and a large public garden extends at the foot of the citadel, with a statue of Enguerrand de Monstrelet the chronicler. The former cathedral of Cambrai was destroyed after the Revolu- tion. The present cathedral of Notre-Dame is a church of the 1 9th century built on the site of the old abbey church of St Sepulchre. Among other monuments it contains that of Fenelon, archbishop from 169510 i7is,by Da vidd 'Angers. Thechurchof St G£ry (i8th century) contains, among other works of art, a marble rood-screen of Renaissance workmanship. The Place d'Armes, a large square in the centre of the town, is bordered on the north by a handsome h6tel de ville built in 1634 and rebuilt in the I9th century. The Tour St Martin is an old church-tower of the 1 5th and i8th centuries transformed into a belfry. The triple stone portal, which gave entrance to the former archi- episcopal palace, is a work of the Renaissance period. The 86 CAMBRIA— CAMBRIAN SYSTEM present archbishop's palace, adjoining the cathedral, occupies the site of an old Benedictine convent. Cambrai is the seat of an archbishop and a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade- arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions include communal colleges, ecclesiastical seminaries, and schools of drawing and music. The library has over 40,000 volumes and there is a museum of antiquities and objects of art. The chief industry of Cambrai is the weaving of muslin (batiste) and other fine fabrics (see CAMBRIC); wool-spinning and weaving, bleaching and dyeing, are carried on, as well as the manufacture of chicory, oil, soap, sausages and metal boxes. There are also large beet- sugar works and breweries and distilleries. Trade is in cattle, grain, coal, hops, seed, &c. Cambrai is the ancient Nervian town of Camaracum, which is mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. In the 5th century it was the capital of the Prankish king Raguacharius. Fortified by Charlemagne, it was captured and pillaged by the Normans in 870, and unsuccessfully besieged by the Hungarians in 953. During the zoth, nth and i2th centuries it was the scene of frequent hostilities between the bishop and his supporters on the one hand and the citizens on the other; but the latter ultimately effected their independence. In 1478 Louis XI., who had obtained possession of the town on the death of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, handed it over to the emperor, and in the 1 6th century Charles V. caused it to be fortified with a strong citadel, for the erection of which the castles of Cavillers, Escau- doeuvres and many others were demolished. From that date to the peace of Nijmwegen, 1678, which assigned it to France, it frequently passed from hand to hand by capture or treaty. In 1 793 it was besieged in vain by the Austrians. The League of Cambrai is the name given to the alliance of Pope Julius II., Louis XII., Maximilian I., and Ferdinand the Catholic against the Venetians in 1508; and the peace of Cambrai, or as it is also called, the Ladies' Peace, was concluded in the town in 1529 by Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles V., in the name of these monarchs. The bishopric of Cambrai dates from the 5th century, and was raised in 1559 to the rank of an archbishopric, which continued till the Revolution, and has since been restored. The bishops received the title of count from the emperor Henry I. (919-936), and in 1510 were raised to the dignity of dukes, their territory including the town itself and its territory, called Cambresis. See E. Bouly, Histoire de Cambrai et du Cambresis (Cambria, 1843)- CAMBRIA, the Med. Lat. name for Wales. After the end of the western Roman empire the Cymric Celts held for a while both Wales and the land round the Solway (now Cumber- land and adjacent regions), and the former came to be called Cambria, the latter Cumbria, though the two names were some- times interchanged by early medieval writers. CAMBRIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name now universally employed to designate the earliest group of Palaeozoic rocks which possesses a connected suite of fossils. The strata of this system rest upon the Pre-Cambrian, and are succeeded by the Ordovician system. Until the fourth decade of the igth century all stratified rocks older than the Carboniferous had been grouped by geologists into a huge and indefinite " Transition Series." In 1831 Adam Sedgwick and Sir Roderick I. Murchison began the herculean task of studying and sub-dividing this series of rocks as it occurs in Wales and the bordering counties of England. Sedgwick attacked the problem in the Snowdon district, where the rocks are highly altered and displaced and where fossils are comparatively difficult to obtain; Murchison, on the other hand, began to work at the upper end of the series where the strati- graphy is simple and the fossils are abundant. Murchison naturally made the most of the fossils collected, and was soon able to show that the transition series could be recognized by them, just as younger formations had fossils peculiar to themselves; as he zealously worked on he followed the fossiliferous rocks further afield and continually lower in the series. This fossil-bearing set of strata he first styled the " fossiliferous greywacke series," changing it in 1835 to " Silurian system." In the same year Sedgwick introduced the name " Cambrian series " for the older and lower members. Murchison published his Silurian system in 1839, wherein he recognized the Cambrian to include the barren slates and grits of Harlech, Llanberis and the Long Mynd. So far, the two workers had been in agreement; but in his presidential address to the Geological Society of London in 1842 Murchison stated his opinion that the Cambrian contained no fossils that differed from those of the Lower Silurian. Where- upon Sedgwick undertook a re-examination of the Welsh rocks with the assistance of J. W. Salter, the palaeontologist; and in 1852 he included the Llandeilo and Bala beds (Silurian) in the Upper Cambrian. Two years later Murchison brought out his Siluria, in which he treated the Cambrian system as a mere local facies of the Silurian system, and he included in the latter, under J. Barrande's term " Primordial zone," all the lower rocks, although they had a distinctive fauna. Meanwhile in Europe and America fossils were being collected from similar rocks which were classed as Silurian, and the use of " Cambrian " was almost discarded, because, following Murchison, it was taken to apply only to a group of rocks without a charac- teristic fauna and therefore impossible to recognize. Most of the Cambrian rocks were coloured as Silurian on the British official geological maps. Nevertheless, from 1851 to 1855, Sedgwick, in his writings on the British palaeozoic deposits, insisted on the independence of the Cambrian system, and though Murchison had pushed his Silurian system downward in the series of rocks, Sedgwick adhered to the original grouping of his Cambrian system, and even proposed to limit the Silurian to the Ludlow and Wenlock beds with the May Hill Sandstone at the base. This attitude he maintained until the year of his death (1873), when there appeared his introduction to Sailer's Catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian Fossils. It is not to be supposed that one of these great geologists was necessarily in the wrong; each had right on his side. It was left for the subsequent labours of Salter and H. Hicks to prove that the rocks below the undoubted lower Silurian of Murchison did indeed possess a characteristic fauna, and their work was con- firmed by researches going on in other countries. To-day the recognition of the earliest fossil-bearing rocks, below the Llan- deilo formation of Murchison, as belonging to the Cambrian system, and the threefold subdivision of the system according to palaeontological evidence, may be regarded as firmly established. It should be noted that A. de Lapparent classifies the Cambrian as the lowest stage in the Silurian, the middle and upper stages being Ordovician and Gothlandian. E. Renevier proposed to use Silurique to cover the same period with the Cambrian as the lowest series, but these differences of treatment are merely nominal. Jules Marcou and others have used Taconie (Taconian) as the equivalent of Cambrian, and C.Lapworth proposed to apply the same term to the lowest sub-division only; he had also used " Annelidian " in the same sense. These names are of historical interest alone. Cambrian Rocks. — The lithological characters of the Cambrian rocks possess a remarkable uniformity in all quarters of the globe. Muds, sands, grits and conglomerates are the predominant types. In Scotland, North America and Canada important deposits of limestone occur and subordinate limestones are found in the Cambrian of central Europe. In some regions, notably in the Baltic province and in parts of the United States, the rocks still retain their original horizon- tality of deposition, the muds are scarcely indurated and the sands are still incoherent; but in most parts of the world they bear abundant evidence of the many movements and stresses to which they have been exposed through so enormous a period of time. Thus, we find them more frequently, folded, tilted and cleaved; the muds have become shales, slates, phyllites or schists, the grey and red sands and conglomerates have become quartzites and greywackes, while the limestones are very gener- ally dolomitized. In the Cambrian limestones, as in their more CAMBRIAN SYSTEM recent analogues, layers and nodules of chert and phosphaii.-.oi material are not wanting. Igneous rocks are not extensively developed; in Wales they form an important feature and occur in considerable thickiu-v,; Distribution of Cambrian Rocks dut •/ IM fmvl. I ](/.»o>«. TIM Vot»» /Am iiaHcett /Of po I l<*'ifri6*fKNi •/ ianrf ond S«o. — "I they are represented by lavas of oli vine-diabase and by con- temporaneous tuffs which are traversed by later granite and quartz felsite. In the Cambrian of Brittany there are acid lavas and tuffs. Quartz porphyry, diabase and diorite appear in the Ardennes. In Bohemia, North America and Canada igneous rocks have been observed. In China, on the Yang-tse river, a thick deposit has been found full of boulders of diverse kinds of rock, striated in the manner that is typical of glacial action. A similar deposit occurs in the Gaisa beds near the Varanger Fjord in Norway. These forma- tions lie at the base of the lowest Cambrian strata and may possibly be included in the pre- Cambrian, though in Norway they are clearly resting upon a striated floor of crystalline rocks. Cambrian Life. — In a general survey of the life of this period, as it is revealed by the fossils, three outstanding facts are ap- parent: (i) the great divergence between the Cambrian fauna and that of the present day; (2) the Cambrian life assemblage differs in no marked manner from that of the succeeding Ordovi- cian and Silurian periods; there is a certain family likeness which unites all of them; (3) the extraordinary complexity and diversity not only in the assemblage as a whole but within certain limited groups of organisms. Although in the Cambrian strata we have the oldest known fossiliferous rocks — if we leave out of account the very few and very obscure organic remains hitherto recorded from the pre-Cambrian — yet we appear to enter suddenly into the presence of a world richly peopled with a suite of organisms already far advanced in differentiation; the Cambrian fauna seems to be as far removed from what must have been the first forms of life, as the living forms of this remote period are distant from the creatures of to-day. With the exception of the vertebrates, every one of the great classes of animals is represented in Cambrian rocks. Simple protozoa appear in the form of Radiolaria; Lithistid sponges are represented by such forms as Archaeoscyphia, Hexactinellid sponges by Protospongta; Graptolites (Dictyograplus (Dictyo- nema)) come on in the higher parts of the system. Medusa-like casts have been found in the lower Cambrian of Scandinavia (Uediuina) and in the mid-Cambrian of Alabama (Brooksdla). Corals, Arthaeocyatkus, Spirocyathus, &c., lived in the Cambrian seas along with starfishes (Palaeasterina), Cystideans, Protocys- tites, Trochocystites and possibly Crinoids, Dendrocrinus. An- nelids left their traces in burrows and casts on the sea-floor (Arenicoliles, Cnaiana, Scolilhus, tic.). Crustacea occupied an extremely prominent place; there were Phyllocarids such as Hymenocaris, and Ostracods like Entomidella; but by far the most important in numbers and development were the Trilo- now extinct, but in palaeozoic times so abundant. In the Cambrian period trilubitcs had already attained their maximum ; SOUK' species of Paradoxides were nearly 2 ft. long, but in company with these monsters were tiny forms like Agnostus and Microdiscus. Many of the Cambrian trilobites appear to have >een blind, and they had not at this period developed that K'xibility in the carapace that some forms acquired later. Brachiopods were fairly abundant, particularly the non- articulated forms (Obolus, Lingulella, Acrolreta, Discinopsis, fee.); amongst the articulate genera are Kutorgina, Orlhis, Rhynchonella. It is a striking fact that certain of these non- articulate "lamp-shells" are familiar inhabitants of our present seas. Each of the principal groups of true mollusca was repre- sented: Pelecypods (M odioloides) ; Gasteropods (Scenella, Pleurolomaria, Trochonema) ; Pteropods (Hyolithellus, Hyo- lilhes, Salterella); Cephalopods (Orlhoceras, Cystoceras). Of and plants no traces have yet been discovered. Certain markings on slates and sandstones, such as the " fucoids " of Scandinavia and Scotland, the Phycoides of the Fichtelgcbirge, Eophylon and other seaweed-like impressions, may indeed be the casts of fucoid plants; but it is by no means sure that many of them are not mere inorganic imitative markings or the tracks or casts of worms. Oldhamia, a delicate branching body, abundant in the Cambrian of the south-east of Ireland, is probably a calcareous alga, but its precise nature has not been satisfactorily determined. Cambrian Stratigraphy. — Wherever the Cambrian strata have been carefully studied it has now been found possible and con- venient to arrange them into three series, each of which is charac- terized by a distinctive genus of trilobite. Thus we have a Lower Cambrian with Olenellus, a middle series with Paradoxides and an Upper Cambrian with Olenus. It is true that these fossils are not invariably present in every occurrence of Cambrian strata, but this fact notwithstanding, the threefold division holds with sufficient constancy. An uppermost series lies above the Olenus fauna in some areas; it is represented by the Tremadoc beds in Britain or by the Dictyonema beds or Euloma-Niobe fauna elsewhere. Three regions deserve special attention: (i) Great Britain, the area in which the Cambrian was first differ- entiated from the old " Transition Series "; (2) North America, on account of the wide-spread occurrence of the rocks and the abundance and perfection of the fossils; and (3) Bohemia, made classic by the great labours of J. Barrande. Great Britain and Ireland. — The table on p. 660 contains the names that have been applied to the subdivisions of the Cambrian strata in the areas of outcrop in Wales and England ; at the same time it indicates approximately their relative position in the system. In Scotland the upper and middle series are represented by a thick mass of limestone and dolomite, the Durness limestone (1500 ft.). In the lower scries are, in descending order, the " Ser- pulite grits " or " Salterella beds," the " Fucoid beds " and the " Eriboll quartzite," which is divided into an upper " Pipe rock" and lower " Basal quartzite." The Cambrian rocks of Ireland, a great series of purple and green shales, slates and grits with beds of quartzite, have not yet yielded sufficient fossil evidence to permit of a correlation with the Welsh rocks, and possibly some parts of the series may be transferred in the future to the overlying Ordovician. North America. — On the North American continent, as in Europe, the Cambrian system is divisible into three scries: (i) the lower or " Georgian," with Olenellus fauna; (2) the middle or " Acadian," with Paradoxides or Dikelocephalus fauna ; (3) tHe upper or " Pots- dam," with Olenus fauna (with Saratogan or St Croix as synonyms for Potsdam). The lower division appears on the Newfoundland and Labrador coasts, and is traceable thence, in a great belt south- west of those points, through Maine and the Hudson-Champlain valley into Alabama, a distance of some 2000 m. ; and the rocks are Drought up again on the western uplift, in Nevada, Idaho, Utah, western Montana and British Columbia. The middle division covers approximately the same region as the lower one, and in addition it is found in Texas, Oklahoma, Indian Territory, Arizona, in western Montana, and possibly in western Wisconsin. The lower division, in addition to covering the areas already indicated, spreads over the interior of the United States. Bohemia. — The Cambrian rocks of this country are now recognized by J. F. Pompeskj to comprise the Paradoxidian and Olenelledian groups. They were made famous through the researches of Barrande. The Cambrian system is covered by his stages " B " and " C " ; the 88 CAMBRIAN SYSTEM former a barren series of conglomerates and quartzites, the latter a series of grey and green fissile shales 1200 ft. thick with sandstones, greywackes and conglomerates. Scandinavia. — Here the Cambrian system is only distinguished clearly on the eastern side, where the three subdivisions are found in a thin series of strata (400 ft.), in which black concretion-bearing North Wales. South Wales. Midland and West of England. Shropshire. Malvern Hills. Nuneaton. Upper Cambrian Olenus fauna Tremadoc slates (Euloma-Niobe fauna) Lingula flags (i) Dolgellybeds (2) Ff es 1 1 niog beds (3) Maentwrog beds Tremadoc beds Lingula flags Shineton shales and shales with Dictyonema Bronsil shales, grey (Niobe fauna) Malvern black shales (White- leaved-oak shales) Upper Stocking- ford shales (Merivaleshalcs) Middle Stocking- ford shales, (Oldbury shales) Middle Cam- brian, Paradox- ides fauna Menevian beds Menevian beds Solva group Comley or Holly- bush sandstone with upper Comley lime- stone Hollybush sand- stone Lower Stocking- ford shales (Purley shales) Lower Cambrian, Olenettus fauna Harlech grits and Llanberis slates Caerfai group Lower Comley limestone Wrekin quartzite Hollybush sand- stone with Mal- vern quartzite and conglomer- ate at the base Upper Hartshill quartzite. Hyo- lithes shales and limestone Middle and lower Hartshill quart- zite and the quartzite of the Lickey Hills shales play an important part. Limestones and shales with the Euloma-Niobe fauna come at the top. The upper series (Olenus) has been minutely zoned by W. C. Brogger, S. A. Tullberg and J. C. Moberg. In the middle series (Paradoxides) three thin limestone bands have been distinguished, the Fragmenten-Kalk, the Exulans- Kalk and the Andrarums-Kalk. On the Norwegian side the Cambrian is perhaps represented by the Roros schists which lie at the base of a great series of crystal- line schists, the probable equivalent of Ordovician and Silurian rocks. Baltic Province. — The Cambrian rocks in this region are nearly all soft sediments, some 600 ft. thick; they reach from the Gulf of Finland towards Lake Ladoga. At the base is the so-called " blue clay " (really greenish) with ferruginous sandstones and with a fucoidal sandstone at its summit. This division is the equivalent of the Lower Cambrian. Above the fucoidal sandstone an im- portant break appears in the system, for the Paradoxides and Olenus divisions are absent. The upper members are the " Ungulite grit " and about 20 ft. of Dictyonema shale. Cambrian rocks have been traced into Siberia (lat. 71°) and on the island of Vaigatch. Central Europe. — Besides the Bohemian region previously men- tioned, Cambrian rocks are present in Belgium and the north of France, in Spain and the Thiiringer Wald. In the Ardennes the system is represented by grits and sandstones, shales, slates and quartz schists, and includes also whet slates and some igneous rocks. A. Dumont has arranged the whole series (Terrain ardennais) into three systems, an upper " Salmien," a middle " Revinien " and a lower " Devillien," but J. Gosselet has subsequently proposed to unite the two lower groups in one. France. — In northern France Cambrian rocks, mostly purple conglomerates and red shales, rest with apparent unconformability upon pro-Cambrian strata in Brittany, Normandy and northern Poitou. In the Rennes basin limestones — often dolomitic — are associated with quartzites and conglomerates; silicious limestones also occur in the Sarthe region. Farther south, around the old lands of Languedoc, equivalents of the two upper divisions of the Cambrian have been recorded; and the uppermost members of the system appear in Hcrault. Patches of Cambrian rocks are found in the Pyrenees. In Spain slates and quartzites, the slates of Rivadeo, more than 9000 ft. thick, are followed by the middle Cambrian beds of La Vega, thick quartzites with limestone, slates and iron ores. Cambrian rocks occur also in the provinces of Seville and Ciudad-Real. Upper Cambrian strata have been found in upper Alemtejo in Portugal. In Russian Poland is a series of conglomerates, quartzites and shales; some of the beds yield a Paradoxides fauna. In the Thiiringer Wald are certain strata, presumably Cambrian since the uppermost beds contain the Euloma-Niobe fauna. Sardinia contains both middle and upper Cambrian. The Cam- brian system is represented in the Salt Range of India by the Neo- bolus or Khussack beds, which may possibly belong to the middle subdivision. The same group is probably represented in Corea and the Liao-tung by the thick " Sinisian formation of F. von Richthofen. In South America upper Cambrian rocks have been recorded from north Argentina. The Lower Cambrian has been found at vari- ous places in South Australia; and in Tas- mania a thick series of strata appears to be in part at least of Upper Cambrian age. General Physical Conditions in the Cam- brian Period. — The Cambrian rocks previ- ously described are all such as would result from deposition, in comparatively shallow seas, of the products of degradation of land surfaces by the ordinary agents of denudation. Evidences of shallov/ water conditions arc abundant; very fre- quently on the bedding surfaces of sandstones and other rocks we find cracks made by the sun's heat and pittings caused by the showers that fell from the Cambrian sky, and these records of the weather of this remote period are pre- served as sharply and clearly as those made only to-day on our tidal reaches. Ripple marks and current bedding further point to the shallowness of the water at the places where the rocks were made. No Cambrian rocks are such as would be formed in the abysses of the sea- — although the absence of well-developed eyes in the trilobites has led some to assume that this condition was an indication that the creatures lived in abyssal depths. At the close of the pro- Cambrian, many of the deposits of that period must have been elevated into regions of fairly high ground; this we may assume from the nature of the Cambrian deposits which are mainly the product of the denudation of such ground. Over the land areas thus formed, the seas in Cambrian time gradually spread, laying down first the series known as Lower Cambrian, then by further encroachment on the land the wider spread Upper Cambrian deposits — in Europe, the middle series is the most extensive. Consequently, Cambrian strata are usually unconformable on older rocks. During the general advance of the sea, local warpings of the crust may have given rise to shallow lagoon or inland-lake con- ditions. The common occurrence of red strata has been cited in support of this view. Compared with some other periods, the Cambrian was free from extensive volcanic disturbances, but in Wales and in Brittany the earlier portions of this period were marked by voluminous outpourings; a condition that was feebly reflected in central and southern Europe. No definite conclusions can be drawn from the fossils as to the climatic peculiarities of the earth in Cambrian times. The red rocks may in some cases suggest desert conditions; and there is good reason to suppose that in what are now Norway and China a glacial cold prevailed early in the period. Considerable variations occur in the thickness of Cambrian deposits, which may generally be explained by the greater CAMBRIC— CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF 89 rapidity of deposition in some areas than in others. Nothing could be more striking than the difference between the thick- nesses in western and eastern Europe; in Brittany the deposits are over 24,000 ft. thick, in Wales at least i -\ooo ft., in wrstrrn England they are only 3000 ft., and in northern Scotland 2000 ft ., while no farther cast than Scandinavia the complete Cumbrian succession is only about 400 ft. thick. Again, in North America, the greatest thicknesses are found along the mountainous regions on the west and on the east — reaching 12,000 ft. in the latter and probably nearly 40,000 ft. in the former (in British Columbia) — while over the interior of the continent it is seldom more than 1000 ft. thick. Any attempt to picture the geographical conditions of the Cambrian period must of necessity be very imperfect. It was pointed out by Barrande that early in Palaeozoic Europe there appeared two marine provinces — a northern one extending from Russia to the British Isles through Scandinavia and northern Germany, and a southern one comprising France, Bohemia, the Iberian peninsula and Sardinia. It is assumed that some kind of land barrier separated these two provinces. Further, there is a marked likeness between the Cambrian of western Europe and eastern America; many fossils of this period are common to Britain, Sweden and eastern Canada; therefore it is likely that a north Atlantic basin existed. Prof. Kayser suggests that there was also a Pacific basin more extensive than at present; this is borne out by the similarity between the Cambrian faunas of China, Siberia and Argentina. The same author postulates an Arctic continent, bordering upon northern Europe, Greenland and North America; an African-Brazilian continent across the present south Atlantic, and a marine communication between Australia and India, where the faunas have much in common. REFERENCES. — The literature devoted to the Cambrian period is very voluminous, important contributions having been made by A. Scdgwick. Sir R. I. Murchison, H. Hicks, C. Lapworth, T. Groom, J. \V. Salter, J. E. Marr, C. D. Walcott, G. F. Matthew, E. Emmons. E. Billings, J. Barrande, F. Schmidt, W. C. Brogger, >. A. Tullbere, S. L. Torngrist, G. Linnarsson and many others. A good general account of the period will be found in Sir A. Geikie's Text-Book of Geology, vol. ii. 4th ed. 1903 (with references), and from an American point of view, in T. C. Chamberlain and R. O. Salisbury's Geology, vol. ii., 1906 (references to American sources). See also J. E. Marr, The Classification of the Cambrian and Silurian Rocks. 1883 (with bibliography up to the year of publication); A. Gctkie Q. J. Geol. Soc., 1891, xlvii., Ann. address, p. 90; F. Freeh, " Die geoeraphische Verbreitung und Entwickelung aes Cambrium," CompU Kendu. Congris Geol. Internal. 1897, St-Petersbourg (1899); GeotoricoJ Literature added to the Geological Society's Library, pub- lished annually since 1893. (J. A. H.) CAMBRIC, a word derived from Kameryk or Kamerijk. the Flemish name of Cambrai, a town in the department of Nord, France, where the cloth of this name is said to have been first made. It was originally made of fine linen. There is a record of a privy purse expenditure in 1 530 for cambric for Henry VIII. 's shirts. Cambric has been used for many years in the manufacture of handkerchiefs, collars, cuffs, and for fine underclothing; also for the best shrouds, and for fine baby linen. The yarns for this cloth are of very fine quality, and the number of threads and picks often reaches and sometimes exceeds 120 per inch. Embroidery cambric is a fine linen used for embroidery. Batiste, -.lid to be called after Baptiste, a linen-weaver of Cambrai, is a kind of cambric frequently dyed or printed. All these fabrics are largely copied in cheaper materials, mixtures of tow and cotton, and in many cases cotton alone, taking the place of the original flax line yams. CAMBRIDGE. EARLS AND DUKES OF. Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings of England the earldom of Cam- bridge was united with that of Huntingdon, which was held among others by David I., king of Scotland, as the husband of earl Waltheof's daughter, Matilda. As a separate dignity the earldom dates from about 1340, when William V., count (after- wards duke) of Juliers, was created earl of Cambridge by King Edward III.; and in 1362 (the year after William's death) Edward created his own son, Edmund of Langley, earl of Cam- bridge, the title being afterwards merged in that of duke of York, which was bestowed upon Edmund in 1385. Edmund's elder son, Edward, earl of Rutland, who succeeded his father as duke of York and earl of Cambridge in 1402, appears to have resigned the latter dignity in or before 1414, as in this year his younger brother, Richard, was made earl of Cambridge. In the following year Richard was executed for plotting against King Henry V., and his title was forfeited, but it was restored to his son, Richard, who in 1415 became duke of York in succession to his uncle Edward. Subsidiary to the dukedom of York the title was held by Richard, and after his death in 1460 by his son Edward, afterwards King Edward IV., becoming extinct on the fall of the Yorkist dynasty. In 1619 King James I., anxious to bestow an English title upon James Hamilton, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (d. 1625), created him carl of Cambridge, a title which came to his son and successor James, 3rd marquess and first duke of Hamilton (d. 1649). In 1651 when William, 2nd duke of Hamilton, died, his English title became extinct. Again bestowed upon a member of the royal house, the title of earl of Cambridge was granted in 1659 by Charles II. to his brother Henry, duke of Gloucester, only to become extinct on Henry's death in the following year. In 1661 Charles, the infant son of James, duke of York, afterwards King James II., was designated as marquess and duke of Cambridge, but the child died before the necessary formalities were completed. However, two of James's sons, James (d. 1667) and Edgar (d. 1671), were actually created in succession dukes of Cambridge, but both died in childhood. After the passing of the Act of Settlement in 1701 it was proposed to grant an English title to George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, who, after his grandmother, the electress Sophia, and his father, the elector George Louis, was heir to the throne of England; and to give effect to this proposal George Augustus was created marquess and duke of Cambridge in November 1706. The title lapsed when he became king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1727, but it was revived in 1801 in favour of Adolphus Frederick, the seventh son of George III. He and his son are dealt with below. ADOLPHUS FREDERICK, duke of Cambridge (1774-1850), was born in London on the 24th of February 1774. Having studied at the university of Gottingen, Adolphus Frederick served in the Hanoverian and British armies, and, in November 1801, was created earl of Tipperary and duke of Cambridge, becoming a member of the privy council in the following year. The duke is chiefly known for his connexion with Hanover. In 1815, on the conclusion of the war, the electorate of Hanover was raised to the rank of a kingdom, and in the following year the duke was appointed viceroy. He held this position until the separation of Great Britain and Hanover in 1837, and displaying tact and moderation, appears to have ruled the country with great success during a difficult period. Returning to England the duke became very popular, and was active in supporting many learned and benevolent societies. He died in London on the 8th of July 1850. In 1818 he married Augusta (1797-1889), daughter of Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. He left three children: his successor, George; Augusta Caroline (b. 1822), who married Frederick William, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strclitz; and Mary Adelaide (1833-1897), who married Francis, duke of Teck. GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK CHARLES, duke of Cam- bridge (1819-1904), was born at Hanover on the 26th of March 1819. He was thus about two months older than his cousin, Queen Victoria, and was for that period in the line of succession to the British throne. He was educated at Hanover by the Rev. J. R. Wood, a canon of Worcester. In November 1837, after he had served for a short time in the Hanoverian army, the rank of colonel in the British army was conferred upon him, and he was attached to the staff at Gibraltar from October 1838 to April 1839. After serving in Ireland with the I2th Royal Lancers, he was appointed in April 1842 colonel of the i7th Light Dragoons (now Lancers). From 1843 to 1845 he was colonel on the staff in the Ionian Islands, and was then promoted major-general. In October 1846 he took command of the Limerick district, and shortly afterwards of the Dublin district. In 1850 his father died, and he succeeded to the 9o CAMBRIDGE, R. O.— CAMBRIDGE dukedom. Being appointed inspector of cavalry in 1852, he held that post until 1854, when, upon the outbreak of the Crimean War, he was placed in command of the ist division (Guards and Highland brigades) of the British army in the East. In June of the same year he was promoted lieutenant-general. He was present at the battles of the Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman, and at the siege of Sevastopol. On the isth of July 1856 he was appointed general commanding-in-chief , on the gth of November 1862 field marshal, and by letters patent, 1887, commander- in-chief. The long period during which he held the command of the army was marked by many changes. The Crimean War brought to light great administrative defects, and led to a re- grouping of the departments, which, with the whole personnel of the army, were brought under the authority of the secretary of state for war. The constitutional changes involved did not, however, affect seriously the organization of the military forces. Only in 1870, after the successes of Prussia had created a pro- found impression, were drastic changes introduced by Cardwell into the entire fabric of the army. The objects of the reformers of 1870 were undoubtedly wise; but some of the methods adopted were open to question, and were strongly resented by the duke of Cambridge, whose views were shared by the majority of officers. Further changes were inaugurated in 1880, and again the duke found much to criticize. His opinions stand recorded in the voluminous evidence taken by the numerous bodies appointed to inquire into the condition of the army. They show a sound military judgment, and, as against innovations as such, a strong attachment to the old regimental system. That this judgment and this attachment were not so rigid as was generally supposed is proved by his published correspondence. Throughout the period of change, while protesting, the duke invariably accepted and loyally endeavoured to carry out the measures on which the government decided. In a memorandum addressed to Mr Childers in 1880 he defined his attitude as follows: — " Should it appear, however, that for reasons of state policy it is necessary that the contemplated changes should be made, I am prepared to carry them out to the best of my ability." This attitude he consistently maintained in all cases in which his training and associations led him, rightly or wrongly, to deprecate changes the need for which was not apparent to him. His judgment was especially vindicated in the case of an ill-advised reduction of the artillery carried out by Mr Stanhope. Under the order in council of February 1888, the whole responsibility for military duties of every kind was for the first time centred upon the commander-in-chief. This, as pointed out by the Hartington commission in 1890, involved " an excessive centralization " which " must necessarily tend to weaken the sense of responsibility of the other heads of departments, and thus to diminish their efficiency." The duke of Cambridge, whose position entailed many duties apart from those strictly apper- taining to a commander-in-chief, could not give personal atten- tion to the vast range of matters for which he was made nominally responsible. On the other hand, the adjutant-general could act in his name, and the secretary of state could obtain military advice from officials charged with no direct responsibility. The effect was to place the duke in a false position in the eyes of the army and of the country. If the administration of the army suffered after 1888, this was due to a system which violated principles. His active control of its training during the whole period of his command was less hampered, and more directly productive of good results. Throughout his long term of office the duke of Cambridge evinced a warm interest in the welfare of the soldier, and great experience combined with a retentive memory made him a master of detail. He was famous for plain, and strong, language; but while quick to condemn deviations from the letter of regulations, and accustomed to insist upon great precision in drill, he was never a martinet, and his natural kindliness made him ready to bestow praise. Belonging to the older generation of soldiers, he could not easily adapt himself to the new conditions, and in dispensing patronage he was some- what distrustful of originality, while his position as a member of the royal family tended to narrow his scope for selection. He was thus inclined to be influenced by considerations of pure seniority, and to underrate the claims of special ability. The army, however, always recognized that in the duke of Cambridge it had a commander-in-chief devoted to its interests, and keenly anxious amid many difficulties to promote its well-being. The duke resigned the commandership-in-chief on the i st of November 1895, and was succeeded by Lord Wolseley, the duties of the office being considerably modified. He was at the same time .gazetted honorary colonel-in-chief to the forces. He was made ranger of Hyde Park and St James's Park in 1852, and of Richmond Park in 1857; governor of the Royal Military Academy in 1862, and its president in 1870, and personal aide- de-camp to Queen Victoria in 1882. He died on the i7th of March 1904 at Gloucester House, London. The chief honours conferred upon him were: G.C.H., 1825; K.G., 1835; G.C.M.G., 1845; G.C.B., 1855; K.P., 1861; K.T., 1881. From 1854 he was president of Christ's hospital. The duke of Cambridge was married to Louisa Fairbrother, who took the name of FitzGeorge after her marriage. She died in 1890. See Rev. E. Sheppard, George, Duke of Cambridge; a Memoir of his Private Life (London, 1906) ; and Willoughby Verner, Military Life of the Duke of Cambridge (1905). CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802), English poet, was born in London on the I4th of February 1717. He was educated at Eton and at St John's College, Oxford. Leaving the university without taking a degree, he took up residence at Lincoln's Inn in 1737. Four years later he married, and went to live at his country seat of Whitminster, Gloucestershire. In 1751 he removed to Twickenham, where he enjoyed the society of many notable persons. Horace Walpole in his letters makes many jesting allusions to Cambridge in the character of news- monger. He died at Twickenham on the I7th of September 1802. His chief work is the Scribleriad (1751), a mock epic poem, the hero of which is the Martinus Scriblerus of Pope, Arbuthnot and Swift. The poem is preceded by a dissertation on the mock heroic, in which he avows Cervantes as his master. The satire shows considerable learning, and was eagerly read by literary people; but it never became popular, and the allusions, always obscure, have little interest for the present-day reader. He made a valuable contribution to history in his Account of the War in India ... on the Coast of Coromandel from the year 17 50 to 1760 . . . (1761). He had intended to write a history of the rise and progress of British power in India, but this enterprise went no further than the work just named, as he found that Robert Orme, who had promised him the use of his papers, contemplated the execution of a similar plan. The Works of Richard Owen Cambridge, Esq., including several Pieces never before published, with an Account of his Life and Char- acter by his Son, George Owen Cambridge (1803), includes, besides the Scribleriad, some narrative and satirical poems, and about twenty papers originally published in Edward Moore's paper called The World. His poems are included in A. Chalmers's English Poets(i8i6). CAMBRIDGE, a municipal and parliamentary borough, the seat of a university, and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, 56 m. N. by E. of London by the Great Eastern railway, served also by the Great Northern, London & North- Western and Midland lines. Pop. (1901) 38,379. It lies in a flat plain at the southern border of the low Fen country, at an elevation of only 30 to 50 ft. above sea-level. The greater part of the town is situated on the east (right) bank of the Cam, a tributary of the Ouse, but suburbs extend across the river. To the south and west the slight hills bordering the fenland rise gently. The parliamentary borough of Cambridge returns one member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 1 2 aldermen, and 36 councillors. Area, 3233 acres. Cambridge University ' shares with that of Oxford the first place among such institutions in the British empire. It is the dominating factor in the modern importance of History. the town, and it is therefore necessary to outline the historical conditions which led to its establishment. The geographical situation of Cambridge, in its present appearance 1 See also UNIVERSITIES. CAMBRIDGE 91 possessing little attraction or advantage, calls nevertheless for first consideration. Cambridge, in fact, owed its growth to its position on a natural line of communication between the cast and the midlands of England, flanked on the one hand by the deep forests which covered the uplands, on the other by the unreclaimed fens, then desolate and in great part impenetrable. The import- ance of this highway may be judged from the number of early earthworks in the vicinity of Cambridge; and the Castle Hill, at the north side of the present town (near the west bank of the river), is perhaps a British work. Roman remains discovered in the same locality give evidence of the existence of a small town or village at the junction of roads; the name of Camboritum is usually attached to it, but without certainty. The modern name of Cambridge has no connexion with this. The present form of the name has usually been derived from a corruption of t In- original name Grantcbrycgc or Grantabridge (Skeat); but Mr Arthur Gray points out that there is no documentary evidence for this corruption in the shape of such probable intermediate forms as Grantebrig or Crantebrig. On the other hand, he brings evidence to show that the name C 'anti-brig, though not applied to the whole town, was very early given to that quarter of it near the Cante brig, i.e. the bridge over the Cante (the ward beyond the Great Bridge was called " Parcelle of Cambridge " as late as 1540); in this quarter, close to the bridge, Cambridge castle was built by the Conqueror, and from the castle and the castle- quarter the name spread within sixty years to the whole town, the similarity between the names Grantebrig and Cantcbrig playing some part in this extension ( The Dual Origin of the Town of Cambridge, p. 3 1 ) . Granta is the earlier and still an alternative name of the river Cam, this more common modern form having been adopted in sympathy with the modern name of the town. Cambridge had a further importance from its position at the head of river navigation, and a charter of Henry I., in which the town is already referred to as a borough, grants it exclusive rights as a river-port, and regulates traffic and tolls. The wharves lay principally along that part of the river where are now the celebrated " backs " of some of the colleges, whose exquisite grounds slope down to the water. The great Sturbridge or Stourbridgc Fair at Bamwcll, formerly one of the most important in England, is a further illustration of the ancient commercial importance of Cambridge; the oldest known charter concerning it dates from the opening of the i .51 h century, though its initiation may perhaps be placed a century before. Concerning the early municipal history of Cambridge little is known, but at the time of the Domesday survey its citizens felt themselves strong enough to protest against the exactions of the Norman sheriff, Roger Picot; and the town had attained a considerable degree of importance when, in 1068, William the Conqueror built a castle on the site known as Castle Hill, and used it as a base of operations against Hereward the Wake and the insurgents of the fcnland. Cambridge, however, has practically no further military history. From the i4th century onward materials were taken from the castle by the builders of colleges, while the gatehouse, the last surviving portion, was removed in 1842. The medieval spirit of emulation between the universities of Cambridge and Oxford resulted in a series of remarkable fables to account for the foundation of both. That of Cambridge was assigned to a Spanish prince, Cantaber, in the 432151 year after the Creation. A charter from King Arthur dated 531, and the transference of students from Cambridge to Oxford by King Alfred, were also claimed as historical facts. The true germ of the university is to be sought in the religious foundations in the town. The earliest to be noticed is the Augustinian house of St Giles, founded by Hugoline, wife of Roger Picot the sheriff, in 1091; this was removed in 1112 to Bamwcll, where the chapel dedicated to St Andrew the Less is practically the sole remnant of its buildings. In 1224 the Franciscans came to Cambridge, and later in the same century a number of other religious orders settled here, such as the Dominicans, the Gilbertines and the Carmelites, who had before been established at Newnham. Students were gradually attracted to these several religious houses, and Cambridge was already recognized as a centre of learning when, in 1231, Henry III. issued a writ for its governance as such, among other provisions conferring certain disciplinary powers on the bishop of Ely. It soon became evident that the influence of the religious orders on those who came to them for instruction was too narrow. This was recognized elsewhere, for it was in order to counteract that influence that Walter de Merton drew up the statute of governance for his foundation of Mcrton College, Oxford, a statute which was soon afterwards used as a model by Hugh de Balsham, bishop of Ely, when, in 1281-1284 he founded the first Cambridge college, Pcterhouse. The friction between town and university, due in the main to the conflict of their jurisdictions, the tradition of which, as in the sister university, died hard in the annual efforts of some under- graduates to revive the " town and gown " riots, culminated during the rebellion of Wat Tyler (1381) in an episode which is alone worthy of record and may serve to illustrate the whole. This was an attack by the rabble, instigated, it is said, by the more reputable townspeople, on the colleges, several of which were sacked. The attack was ultimately defeated by the courage and resource of Henry Spenser or Le Dispencer, bishop of Norwich. The relations of the university of Cambridge with the crown were never so intimate as those of Oxford. Henry III. fortified the town with two gates, but these were burnt by the rebellious barons; and in much later times the two first of the Stuart kings, and the two first of the Georges, cultivated friendly personal relations with the university. During the civil war the colleges even melted down their plate for the war chest of King Charles; but Cambridge showed little of the stubborn royalism of Oxford, and submitted to the Commonwealth without serious resistance. The history of collegiate foundation in Cambridge after that of Peterhouse may be followed through the ensuing description of the colleges, but for ease of reference these are dealt coUtget with in alphabetical order. The main street which traverses the town from south to north, parallel to, and at a short distance from the river, is known successively as Trumping- ton Street, King's Parade, Trinity Street, St John's Street and Bridge Street. The majority of the colleges lie on either side of this street, and chiefly between it and the river. Those of St John's, Trinity, Trinity Hall, Clare, King's and Queens' present the famous " backs " towards the river, which is crossed by a series of picturesque bridges leading to the gardens and grounds on the opposite bank. Christ's College is not among the group indicated above; it stands farther to the east, in St Andrew's Street. It was founded in 1505 by the Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII. It incorporated God's House, which had been founded by William Bingham, a cleric of London, in 1439, had been removed when the site was required for part of King's College, and had been refounded with the countenance of Henry VI. in 1448. This was a small house, but the Lady Margaret's endowment provided for a master, twelve fellows and forty-seven scholars. Edward VI. added another fellowship and three scholarships and the present number of fellows is fifteen. There are certain exhibitions in election to which preference is given to schools in the north of England — Giggleswick, Kirkby Lonsdale, Skipton and Sedbergh. The buildings of Lady Margaret's foundation were in great part faced in classical style in the iyth century; a building east of the old quadrangle is also of this period, and is ascribed to Inigo Jones. The rooms occupied by the foundress herself are preserved, though in an altered condition, as are those of the poet Milton, who was educated here, and with whom the college has many associations. In the fine gardens is an ancient mulberry tree believed to have been planted by him. Among illustrious names connected with this college are John Lcland the antiquary, Archdeacon Paley, author of the Evidences, and Charles Darwin, while Henry More and others of the school of Cambridge Pla-tonists in the i;th century were educated here. Clare College lies close to the river, south of Trinity Hall. In 1326 the university erected a hall, known as University Hall, to accommodate a number of students, and in 1338 Elizabeth de CAMBRIDGE Burgh, countess of Clare, re-endowed the hall, which took the name of Clare Hall, and only became known as college in 1856. There was a strong ecclesiastical tendency in this foundation; six out of the twenty fellows were to be priests when elected. The foundation now consists of a master and fifteen fellows, besides scholars, of whom three receive emoluments from the endowment of Lady Clare. The old college buildings were in great part destroyed by fire in 1521; the present buildings date from 1638 to 1715, and are admirable examples of their period. They surround a very beautiful quadrangle, and the back towards the river is also fine. Unconfirmed tradition indicates the poet Chaucer as an alumnus of this college; other famous men associated with it were Hugh Latimer the martyr, Ralph Cudworth, one of the " Platonists," and Archbishop Tillotson. Corpus Christi College (commonly called Corpus) stands on the east side of Trumpington Street. The influence of medieval gilds in Cambridge, the character of which was primarily religious, was exceedingly strong. About the be- ginning of the i4th century there is first mentioned the gild of St Mary, which was connected with Great St Mary's church. The gild was at this time prosperous, but about 1350, when the idea of the foundation of a college by the gilds was matured, the fraternity of St Mary lacked the means to proceed save by amalgamating with another gild, that of Corpus Christi. The age of this institution, whose church was St Benedict's or St Benet's, is not known. By the two gilds, therefore, the " House of Scholars of Corpus Christi and the Blessed Virgin Mary " was founded in 1352, the foundation being the only instance of its kind. In early times it was commonly known as St Benet's from the church connected with the Corpus gild which stands over against the college, and served as its chapel for nearly three centuries. The foundation consists of a master and twelve fellows, with scholars of the old and later foundations. The ancient small quadrangle remains, and is of historical rather than architectural interest. The great quadrangle dates from 1823-1825. The library contains the famous collection of MSS. bequeathed by Archbishop Matthew Parker, alumnus of the college, in the i6th century. Downing College is in the southern part of the town, to the east of Trumpington Street. Sir George Downing, baronet, of Gamlingay Park, who died in 1749, left estates to various relations, who died without issue. In this event, Downing's will provided for the foundation of a college, but the heirs contested the will with the university, and in spite of a decision against them in 1769, continued to hold the estates for many years, so that it was not until 1800 that the charter for the college was obtained. The foundation-stone was laid in 1807, and the two ranges of buildings, in classical style, represent all that was completed of an intended quadrangle. The foundation consists of a master, professors of English law and of medicine, six fellows and six scholars. Emmanuel College overlooks St Andrew's Street. It was founded in 1 584 by Sir Walter Mildmay (c. 1 520-1 589) , chancellor of the exchequer and privy councillor under Queen Elizabeth. The foundation, considerably enlarged from the original, consists of a master, sixteen fellows and thirty scholars. There are further scholarships on other foundations which are awarded by pre- ference to pupils of Uppingham and other schools in the midlands. Emmanuel was noted from the outset as a stronghold of Puritan- ism; it is indeed recorded that Elizabeth rallied the founder on his intention that this should be so. Mildmay assuredly had the welfare of the church primarily at heart, and he attempted to provide against the life residence of fellows, which he con- sidered an unhealthy feature in some colleges. The site of Emmanuel was previously occupied by a Dominican friary, and some of its buildings were adapted to collegiate uses. There is only a little of the earliest building remaining; the greater part of the present college dates from the second half of the i8th century. The chapel, however, is by Sir Christopher Wren (1677). Richard Holdsworth, Gresham professor, and William Bancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, were masters of this college; Bishops Joseph Hall and Thomas Percy were among its alumni, as was John Harvard, principal founder of the great American college which bears his name. Gonville and Caius College (commonly called Caius, pronounced Kees), stands mainly on the west side of Trinity Street. It arose out of an earlier foundation. In 1348 Edmund Gonvile or Gonevill founded the hall of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, which was commonly called Gonville Hall, for the education of twenty scholars in dialectic and other sciences, with endowment for a master and three fellows. This hall stood on part of the present site of Corpus, but on the death of its founder in 1351 it was moved to the north-west corner of the site of the present Caius, by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall. The famous physician John Caius (?.».), who was educated at this small institution, later conceived the idea of refounding and enlarging it, obtained a charter to do so in 1557, and became master of the new foundation of Gonville and Caius College. The foundation consists of a master and not less than twenty- two fellows, exclusive of the provision under the will of William Henry Drosier (d. 1889), doctor of medicine and fellow of the college, for the endowment of seven additional fellowships. Since its refoundation by Caius, the college has had a peculiar connexion with the study of medicine, while, besides many eminent physicians, Sir Thomas Gresham, Judge Jeffreys, Robert Hare, Jeremy Taylor, Henry Wharton and Lord Thurlow are among its noted names. Three sides of the main quadrangle, Tree Court, including the frontage towards Trinity Street, are modern (1870). The interior of this court is picturesque, and the design of the smaller Caius Court was inspired by Caius himself. He also designed the gates of Honour, Virtue and Humility, of which the two first stand in situ; the gate of Honour is a peculiarly good example of early Renaissance work. Caius is buried in the chapel. Jesus College lies apart from and to the north-east of the majority of the colleges. It was founded in 1406 by John Alcock, bishop of Ely. The site was previously occupied by a Benedictine nunnery dedicated to St Radigund, which was already in existence in the first half of the 1 2th century and was claimed by Alcock to have been founded from Ely, to the bishops of which it certainly owed much. The name given to Alcock's college was that of " the most Blessed Virgin Mary, St John the Evangelist, and the glorious Virgin Saint Radigund," but it appears that the founder himself intended the name to be Jesus College. He provided for a master and six fellows, but the foundation now consists of a master and sixteen fellows, with twenty scholars or more. There are several further scholarships confined to the sons of clergymen of the Church of England. Architecturally Jesus is one of the most interesting colleges in Cambridge, for Alcock retained, and there still remains, a con- siderable part of the old buildings of the nunnery. The most important of these is the church, which Alcock, by removing most of the nave and other portions, converted into the usual form of a college chapel. The tower, however, is retained. The bulk of the building is an admirable example of Early English work, but there are traces of Norman; and Alcock added certain Perpendicular features. Of the rest of the college buildings, the hall is Alcock's work, the brick gatehouse is a fine structure of the close of the isth century, while the cloister is a little later, and stands on the site of the nuns' cloister. Another court dates from the i7th and early i8th centuries, and there is a considerable amount of modern building. The most famous name connected with Jesus College is that of Cranmer. Among many others are Sir Thomas Elyot, John Bale, John Pearson, bishop of Chester, Hugh Peters, Gilbert Wakefield, Thomas Malthus, Laurence Sterne and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. King's College has its fine frontage upon the western side of King's Parade. It was founded by King Henry VI. in 1441. The first site was small and circumscribed, and in 1443 the existing site was with difficulty cleared of dwellings. The king designed a close connexion between this college and his other foundation at Eton; he provided for a provost and for seventy scholars, all of whom should be Etonians. In 1861 open scholarships CAMBRIDGE 93 instituted, and the foundation now consists of a provost, forty-six fellows and forty-eight scholars. Half the scholarships »re still appropriated to Eton. An administrative arrangement peculiar to King's College is that by which the provost has absolute authority within its walls, to the exclusion of officers of the University. The chief architectural ornament of the college, and one of the most notable in the town, is the magnifi- cent Perpendicular chapel, comparable with those of St George at Windsor and Henry Vll. at Westminster Abbey. The building was begun in 1446, and extended (apart from the interior fittings) over nearly seventy years. Within, the most splendid features are the fan-vaulting which extends throughout the chapel, the noble range of stained-glass windows, which date for the most part from the early part of the i6th century, and the wooden organ screen, which, with part of the stalls, is of the time of Henry VIII. The college services are celebrated for the beauty of their music. The bulk of the other collegiate buildings arc of the iSth century or modern. The old court of King's College is occupied by the modern university library, north of the chapel; the gateway, a good example (1444), is preserved. John Frith the Martyr, Richard Croke, Giles Fletcher, Richard Mulcaster, Sir William Temple, William Oughtred, the poet Waller, and Horace Walpole and others of his family are among many illustrious alumni of the college. Uagdtilme College (pronounced Maudlin) stands on the west bank of the Cam, near the Great Bridge. In 1428 the Bene- dictines of Crowland Abbey founded a home for student monks on this site, and in 1519 Edward, duke of Buckingham, partly secularized this institution by founding Buckingham College in connexion with it. After the dissolution of the monastery, Thomas, Baron Audley of Walden, erected Magdalene in place of the former house in 1542. The foundation consists of a master and seven fellows, besides scholars. There are some valuable exhibitions appropriated to Wisbech school. The appointment of the master is peculiar, the office being in the gift of the occupant of Audley End, an estate near Saffron Walden, Essex. Some parts of the original building are preserved, but the most notable portion of the college is the Pepysian library, dating c. 1700. It contains the very valuable collection of books bequeathed by Samuel Pcpys to the college, at which he was a student. Buckingham College had Archbishop Cranmer as a lecturer; Charles Kingsley and Charles Stewart Parnell were educated at Magdalene. Pembroke College stands to the east of Trumpington Street. It was founded in 1347 by Mary de St Paul, widow of Aylmer de Valence, earl of Pembroke. Henry VT. made notable bene- factions to it. The foundation consists of a master and thirteen fellows, and there are six scholarships on the original foundation, besides others of later institution. The older existing buildings are mainly of the iSth century, but much of the original fabric was removed and rebuilt in 1874. The chapel is of the middle of the 1 7th century, and is ascribed to Sir Christopher Wren. The poets Spenser and Gray, Nicholas Ridley the martyr, Archbishop Whitgift and William Pitt were associated with this college; and from the number of bishops whose names are associated with it the college has obtained the style of collegium episcopate. Peterhovse or St Peter's College is on the west side of Trump- ington Street, almost opposite Pembroke. It has already been indicated as the oldest Cambridge college (1284). Hugh dc Balsham, the founder, had settled some secular scholars in the ancient Augustinian Hospital of St John in 1 280, but the experi- ment was not a success. Nor did he carry out his full intentions as regards Pcterhouse, the foundation of which followed on the failure of the fusion of his scholars with the hospital; but Simon Montagu, his successor in the bishopric of Ely, carried on his work, and in 1344 gave the college a code of statutes in which the influence of the Merton code is plainly visible. A master and fourteen fellows formed the original foundation, but UK present consists of a master, and not less than eleven fellows and twenty-three scholars. The hall retains some original work; it was first built out of a legacy from the founder. The library building (c. 1590) is due to a legacy from Dr Andrew Peme (master 1554-1580); and Dr Matthew Wren (master 1625-1634), mule of the famous architect Sir Christopher Wren, directed t he building of the chapel and cloisters. The most famous name connected with the college is that of Cardinal Beaufort. Queens' College stands at the south of the riverside group, and one of its ranges of buildings rises immediately from the river. A college of St Bernard had been established in 1445 by Andrew Docket or Dokett, rector of St Botolph's church, who had also been principal of a hostel, or students' lodge, of St Bernard. He sought and obtained the patronage of Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., who undertook the foundation of a new house on another site in 1448, to bear the name of Queens'. Docket became the first master. In 1465 Elizabeth Woodville, wife of Edward IV., became the college's second foundress. The foundation consists of a president and eleven fellows. The buildings are exceedingly picturesque. The main quadrangle, of red brick, was completed very soon after the foundation. The smaller cloister court, towards the river, retains building of the same period, and the beautiful wooden gallery of the president's lodge deserves notice. Another court is called Erasmus's; the rooms which he is said to have occupied remain, and a walk in the college garden across the river bears his name. Si Catherine's College, on the west side of Trumpington Street, was founded by Dr Robert Woodlark or Wodelarke, chancellor of the university and (1452) provost of King's College. It was opened in 1473, but the charter of incorporation dates from 1475. The foundation provided for a master (Woodlark being the first) and three fellows; there are now six fellows, and twenty-six scholars. The principal buildings, surrounding a court on three sides, date mainly from a complete reconstruction of the college at the close of the I7th century. St John's College, at the north of the riverside group of colleges, was founded in 1511 by the Lady Margaret Beaufort, also foundress of Christ's College. It replaced the Hospital of St John, which dated from the early years of the i3th century, and has been mentioned already in connexion with Peterhouse. The Lady Margaret died before the college was firmly established, and her designs were not carried out without many difficulties, which were overcome chiefly by the exertions of John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, one of her executors. Thirty-two fellow- ships were endowed, but subsequent endowments allowed extension, and the foundation now consists of a master, fifty-six fellows, sixty scholars and nine sizars. A large number of exhibitions are appropriated to special schools. Of the four courts of St John's, the easternmost is the original, and has a very fine Tudor gateway of brick. The chapel is modem (1863-1869), an ornate example of the work of Sir Gilbert Scott. The second court, practically unaltered, dates from 1 598-1602. In this there is a beautiful masters' gallery, panelled, with a richly-moulded ceiling; it is now used as a combination room or fellows' common- room. The third court, which contains the library (1624), backs on to the river, and the fourth, which is on the opposite bank, was built c. 1830. A covered bridge connects the two, and is commonly called the Bridge of Sighs from a certain resemblance to the bridge of that name at Venice. Among the notable names connected with this college are Cecil, Lord Burghley, Thomas Cartwright, Wentworth, earl of Straff ord, Roger Ascham, Richard Bentley, John Cleveland, the satirist, Thomas Baker, the historian, Lord Palmarston, Professor Adams, Sir John Herschel, Bishop Colenso, Dr Benjamin Kennedy, Dean Merivale, Home Tooke, Samuel Parr and William Wilberforce, and the poets Herrick (afterwards of Trinity Hall) and Wordsworth. Selwyn College, standing west of the river (Sidgwick Avenue), was founded in 1882 by public subscription in memory of George Augustus Selwyn, bishop of New Zealand and afterwards of Lichfield, for the purpose of giving university education with economy " combined," according to the charter, " with Christian training, based upon the principles of the Church of England." Sidney Sussex College faces Sidney Street. It was founded under the will (1588) of the Lady Frances Sidney, dowager countess of Sussex (d. 1589), and received its charter in 1596. The foundress provided for a master, ten fellows and twenty 94 CAMBRIDGE scholars, but thirty-six scholarships are now provided. The original buildings were of brick, but they were plastered over and greatly altered by Wyatville about 1830. The Grey Friars had occupied the site, and part of their buildings remained in the chapel until 1777. A beautiful block of new buildings, with a cloister, was erected in 1890. The most famous name associated with the college is that of Oliver Cromwell, who was a fellow commoner, as also was Thomas Fuller, author of the Worthies of England. Trinity College, the front of which is on Trinity Street, is the largest collegiate foundation in Cambridge, and larger than any in Oxford. It was founded in 1546 by King Henry VIII. and absorbed several earlier institutions — King's Hall (founded by Edward III. in 1336), St Michael's or Michaelhouse (founded by Hervey de Stanton, chancellor of the exchequer under Edward II., in 1323), Fyswick or Physick's Hostel, belonging to Gonville Hall, and other hostels. Henry's original foundation was for a master and sixty fellows and scholars, but Queen Mary and other later benefactors enabled extensions to be made, and the foundation now consists of a master (appointed by the crown), at least sixty fellows, seventy-four scholars and sixteen sizars, with minor scholars, chaplains librarian and the regius professors of Divinity, Hebrew and Greek. Major scholarships are open to undergraduates, not being of standing to take the degree of bachelor of arts, as well as to non-members of the university under nineteen years of age, while minor scholarships and exhibitions are open only to the latter. There are valuable exhibitions appropriated to certain schools, of which the most important are those confined to Westminster school. Trinity College is entered from Trinity Street by the King's Gateway (1318-1535) preserved from King's Hall, but subsequently altered . The principal or Great Court is the largest in Cambridge and very fine. Its buildings are of different dates. In the centre is a picturesque fountain, erected by Thomas Neville, master (1593-1615), under whose direction much of the building was carried out. ThtTchapel on the north side of the court was begun in the reign of Mary. The carved oak fittings within date from the mastership of Richard Bentley (1700-1742). The organ is particularly fine. A statue of Sir Isaac Newton by Roubiliac stands in the antechapel, and Richard Person and William Whewell are buried here. The hall on the west of the court is Neville's work (1605), and very beautiful. The second court is also his foundation and bears his name. The library on the west side is the work of Sir Christopher Wren. Its interior is excellent, and besides busts of some of the vast number of famous men connected with Trinity, it contains a statue of Lord Byron by the Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen. The New Court, Gothic in style, was begun in 1823. The beautiful grounds and walks of the college extend down to and beyond the river. The college has extended its buildings to the opposite side of Trinity Street, where the two courts known as Whewell's Hostel were built (c. 1860) at the charge of Dr William Whewell during his mastership. The eminent alumni of this great college are too numerous to admit of selection. Trinity Hall, which lies near the river, south of Trinity, was founded by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich, in 1350. On the site there had been, for about twenty years before the founda- tion , a house of monastic students from Ely. The present college is alone in preserving the term Hall in its title. The foundation consists of a master and thirteen fellows, and the study of law, which the founder had especially in mind, is provided for by lectureships, and not less than three studentships tenable by graduates of the college. The buildings are for the most part modern or modernized, but the interior of the library well preserves its character of the early part of the i7th century. Of the churches of Cambridge one has long been recognized as the church of the university, namely Great St Mary's, which stands in the centre of the town, between King's Parade and Market Hill. It is a fine Perpendicular structure, founded in 1478; but the tower was not completed until 1608. Some Decorated details are preserved from a former building. The university preachers deliver their sermons in this church, but it was formerly the meeting-place of the university for the transaction of business, for learned disputations and for secular festivals. The " Cambridge chimes " struck by the clock are famous, and a curfew is rung each evening on the great bell. The Senate House, standing opposite Great St Mary's, dates from 1730 and is classical in style. The buildings of the university library, in the immediate vicinity, enclose two quadrangles, and in part occupy the site of the old court of King's College. One of the quadrangles was formerly occupied by the schools or lecture rooms, but as the library grew it usurped their place. The most important part of the building dates from 1842. The facade of the old schools is an excellent work of 1758. The library is one of those which is entitled to receive, under the Copyright Act, a copy of every book published in the United Kingdom. The Fitzwilliam Museum, a massive classical building, was begun in 1837 to contain the bibliographical and art collection bequeathed by Richard, Viscount Fitzwilliam, in 1816. The museum of archaeology (classical, general and local, 1884), is connected with the Fitzwilliam Museum. The Pitt Press (1833), housing the university printing establishment, was begun out of the residue of a fund for erecting the statues of William Pitt in Hanover Square, London, and Westminster Abbey. It stands near Pembroke, Pitt's college. The Selwyn Divinity School (1879), opposite St John's College, was built largely at the charge of Dr William Selwyn, Lady Margaret professor of divinity. The museums and lecture rooms (begun in 1863) are extensive buildings on each side of Downing Street. Included in these are the museum of zoology, which had its origin hi collections made by Sir Busick Harwood, professor of anatomy in 1785-1814, and contains the collection of fishes made by Charles Darwin in the ship "Beagle"; the medical school, botanical museum and herbarium, mineralogical museum, engineering laboratory (1894), optical and astronomical lecture room, chemical laboratory (1887), and the Cavendish laboratory for physical research (1874), the gift of William Cavendish, 7th duke of Devonshire and chancellor of the university. The Sedgwick Geological Museum, opened by King Edward VII. in 1904, commemorates Adam Sedgwick, Woodwardian pro- fessor of geology, and originated in the collections of Dr John Woodward (d. 1728). Adjoining this building, in Down- ing Street is the law library, founded on a bequest from Miss Rebecca Flower Squire (d. 1898) with the law school. The observatory (1824) is on the outskirts of the town in Mad- ingley Road, and the pleasant botanic garden (1762) borders Trumpington Road. The club-rooms and debating hall of the Cambridge Union Society are adjacent to the Holy Sepulchre church. The non-collegiate students of the university (i.e those who receive the university education and possess the same status as collegiate students without belonging to any college) have lecture and other rooms and a library in Fitzwilliam Hall. This body was created in 1869. The students reside in lodgings. There are two women's colleges — Girton, established in 1873 on the north-western outskirts of the town, having been previously opened at Hitchin in 1869, and Newnham (1875), originally (1873) a hall of residence for students attending special lectures for women. Among other educational establishments mention must be made of the Leys school, founded in 1875 by a number of prominent Wesleyans for the non-sectarian education of boys. The school is divided into classical and modern sides. Out of a number of ancient churches in Cambridge, two, besides Great St Mary's, deserve special notice. In St Bene- dict's or Benet's, which has been already mentioned in connexion with Corpus College, the tower is of univeraity great interest, being the oldest surviving building in buildings. Cambridge, of pre-Norman workmanship, having rude ornamentation on the exterior and the tower arch within. The church of the Holy Sepulchre in Bridge Street is one of the four ancient round churches in England. Its supposed date is 1120- 1140, but although it is doubtless to be associated with the Knights Templars, the circumstances of its foundation are not CAMBRIDGE 95 Mdmlni,- known. The chancel is practically a modem reconstruction, and an extensive restoration, which has been adversely criticized, was applied by the Cambridge Camden Society to the whole fabric in 1841. At several of the villages neighbouring or suburban to Cambridge there are churches of interest, as at Chesterton, Trumpington, Grantchesu-r (where the name indi- cates a Roman station, borne out by the discovery of remains), Fen Ditton and Bamwell, near which is the Norman Sturbridge chapel. In Cambridge itself there is a Norman house, much altered, which by a tradition of unknown origin bears the name of the School of Pythagoras. The university is a corporate body, including all the colleges. These, however, are also corporations in themselves, and have *'le'r own statutes- DUt ^ey are further subject to the paramount laws of the university. The university statutes of Queen Elizabeth were only replaced in 1858. The statutes as revised by a commission in that year were soon found to require emendation; in 1872 another commission was appointed, and in 1882 new statutes received the approval of the queen in council. The head of the university is the chancellor. He is a member of the university, of high rank and position, elected by the senate. Being generally non-resident, he delegates his administrative duties to the vice-chancellor, who is the head of a college, and is elected for one year by the senate. The principal executive officers under the vice-chancellor are as follows. The two proctors have as their main duty that of disciplinary officers over the members of the university in statu pupillari. In each year two colleges nominate one proctor each, according to a fixed rotation which gives the larger colleges a more frequent choice than the smaller. The proctors are assisted by four pro-proctors. The public orator is the spokesman of the senate upon such public occasions as the conferring of honorary degrees. The librarian has charge of the university library. The registrar, with his assistant, records the proceedings of the senate, &c., and has charge of documents. The university returns two members to parliament, elected by the members of the senate. The chancellor and sex viri (elected by the senate) form a court for offences against the university statutes by members not in statu pupillari. The chancellor and six heads of colleges, appointed by the senate, form a court of discipline for members in slatu pupillari. The senate in congregation is the legislative body. Those who have votes in it are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, doctors of divinity, law, medicine, science, letters and music, and masters of art, law, surgery and music. The council of the senate, consisting of the chancellor, vice-chancellor, four heads of colleges, four professors and eight other members of the senate chosen by the vice-chancellor, brings all proposals (called Graces) before the senate. The revenues of the university are derived chiefly from fees at matriculation, for certain ex- aminations, and for degrees, from a tax upon all members of the university, and from contributions by the colleges, together with the profits of the University Press. A financial board, consisting of the vice-chancellor ex officio and certain elected members, administers the finances of the university. There are boards for each of the various faculties, and a General Board of Studies, with the vice-chancellor at the head. There are university professors, readers or lecturers in a large number of subjects. The oldest professorship is the Lady Margaret professorship of divinity, instituted by the founders of Christ's and St John's Colleges in 1502. In 1540 Henry VIII. founded the regius professorships of divinity, civil law, physic, Hebrew and Greek. The head of a college generally bears the title of master, as indicated above in the account of the several colleges. It has also been seen that the foundation of each college includes a certain number of fellows and scholars. The affairs of the college are managed by the head and tne felto**. °T * committee of fellows. The scholars and other members in ttatu pupillari are generally termed collectively undergraduates. Those who receive no emoluments (and therefore pay the full fees) are technically called pensioners, and form the bulk of the undergraduates. Another group of students receiving emoluments are termed sizars; the primary object of sizarships is to open the university course to men of limited means. The title of fellow-commoners belongs to wealthy students who pay special fees and have the right of dining at the fellows' tables. This class has virtually ceased to exist. As regards his work, the undergraduate in college is under the intimate direction of his tutor; the discip- linary officer in college is the dean. Besides the foundation scholarships in each college there are generally certain scholar- ships and exhibitions founded by private or special benefactions; these are frequently awarded for the encouragement of specific branches of study, or are confined wholly, or by preference, to students from certain schools. The total number of students is about 3000. The colleges cannot accommodate this number, so that a student commonly spends some part of his residence in lodgings, which gesid- are licensed by, and under the control of, the university ente and authorities. Such residence implies no sacrifice of «*«m'"*- membership of a college. There are three terms — Michaelmas (October), Lent and Easter (summer). They include together not less than 227 days, though the actual period of residence for undergraduates is about 24 weeks annually. Undergraduates usually begin residence in Michaelmas term. An elementary examination or other evidence of qualification is required for admission to a college. After nine terms' (three years') residence an undergraduate can take the first degree, that of bachelor of arts (B.A.). The examinations required for the ordinary B.A. degree are — (i) Previous examination or Little-go (usually taken in the first term of residence or at least in the first year), including classics, mathematics and a gospel in Greek and Paley's Evidences of Christianity, or an additional Greek or Latin classic and logic. (2) General examination in classics and mathematics, with a portion of English history, &c. (3) Special examination in a subject other than classical or mathematical. Candidates for honours are required to pass the Previous examina- tion with certain additional subjects; they then have only a " tripos " examination in one of the following subjects — mathe- matics, classics, moral sciences, natural sciences, theology, law, history, oriental languages, medieval and modern languages, mechanical sciences, economics. The mathematical tripos is divided into two parts, in the first of which, down to 1909, the candidates were ckssed in the result as Wranglers, Senior Optimes and Junior Optimes. There was also an individual order of merit, the. most proficient candidate being placed at the head of the list as Senior Wrangler. But in 1006 a number of important reforms of this tripos were proposed by the Mathe- matical Board, and among these the abolition of the individual order of merit was recommended and passed by the senate. It is not employed in any other tripos. The classical tripos is also in two parts, to the second of which certain kindred subjects are added (ancient philosophy, history, &c.). Individual order'of merit is not observed in either part, the candidates being grouped in classes. There are a large number of university prizes and scholarships on special foundations. Such are the Smith's prizes for mathematics and natural philosophy, on the foundation (1768) of Robert Smith, master of Trinity, awarded up to 1883 after examination, but since then for an essay on some branch of each subject, and the Chancellor's medals, of which two have been awarded annually in classics since the foundation of the prizes in 1751 by Thomas Holies, duke of Newcastle. The university may adopt as affiliated colleges institutions in the United Kingdom or in any part of the British empire which fulfil certain conditions as to the education of adult students. Attendance at these institutions is counted as college*. equivalent to a certain period of residence at Cambridge University in the event of a student wishing to pursue his work here. There are over twenty such affiliated colleges. There are also, in England, certain " affiliated centres." These are towns in which there is no affiliated college, but students who have there attended a course of education managed in connexion with the university by a committee may enter the university 96 CAMBRIDGE with privileges similar to those enjoyed by students from affiliated colleges. The principal social function of the university is the " May Week " at the close of the Easter term. It actually takes place May week. *n June and lasts longer than a week. There is a great influx of visitors into Cambridge for this occasion. The first four days are occupied by the college boat-races on the Cam, and on subsequent days there are college balls, concerts, theatrical performances and other entertainments. On the Tuesday after the races there is a Congregation, at which prize exercises are recited, and usually, but not invariably, a number of honorary degrees are conferred on eminent men by invitation. This final period of the academic year is called Commencement, or in Latin Comitia Maxima. AUTHORITIES. — For details of the administration of the university and colleges, regulations as to studies, prizes, scholarships, &c., see the annual Cambridge University Calendar and The Students' Hand- book to the University and Colleges of Cambridge ; see also R. Willis and J. W. Clark, Architectural History of the University of Cambridge (3 vols., Cambridge, 1886); J. Bass Mullinger, History of the Uni- versity of Cambridge from the Earliest Times to the Accession of Charles I. (2 vols., 1873-1884; third vol., 1909); and smaller History of Cambridge, in Longman's "Epoch" Series (1888); J. W. Clark, Cambridge, Historical and Picturesque (London, 1890); T. D. Atkinson, Cambridge Described and Illustrated, with intro- duction by J. W. Clark (London, 1897) ; F. W. Maitland, Township and Borough (Cambridge, 1898); C. W. Stubbs, Cambridge, in " Mediaeval Towns " series (London, 1905) ; Arthur Gray, The Dual Origin of the Town of Cambridge (publications of the Cambridge Antiquarian Soc., new ser. No. I, Cambridge, 1908); J. W. Clark, Liber memorandorum ecclesie de Bernewelle (Cambridge, 1907), with an introduction by F. W. Maitland. For the individual colleges, see the series of College Histories, by various authors (London, 1899 et seq.). CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Dorchester county, Maryland, U.S.A., on the Choptank river, near Chesa- peake Bay, about 60 m. S.E. of Baltimore. Pop. (1890) 4192; (1900) 5747, of whom 1958 were negroes. It is served by the Cambridge branch of the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washing- ton railway (Pennsylvania railway), which connects with the main line at Seaford, 30 m. distant, and with the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic at Hurlock, 16 m. distant; and by steamers of the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic railway company. It is a business centre for the prosperous farming region by which it is surrounded, and is a shipping point for oysters and fish; among its manufactures are canned fruits and vegetables, flour, hominy, phosphates, underwear and lumber. Cambridge was founded in 1684, received its present name in 1686, and was chartered as a city in 1900. CAMBRIDGE, a city and one of the county -seats of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on the Charles river, in the outskirts of Boston, of which it is in effect a part, although under separate government. Pop. (1880) 52,669; (1890) 70,028; (1900) 91,886; (estimated, 1906) 98,554. Of the total population in 1900, 30,446 were foreign-born, including 11,235 Irish, 9613 English Canadians, 1944 English, 1483 French Canadians and 1584 Swedish; and 54,200 were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 24,961 of Irish parentage, 9829 of English-Canadian parentage, 2587 of English parentage, and 2 288 of French- Canadian parentage. Cambridge is entered directly by only one railway, the Boston & Maine. The township, now practically built over by the city, contained originally several separate villages, the names of which are still used as a convenience in designating corresponding sections of the municipality: Old Cambridge, North Cambridge, Cam- bridgeport and East Cambridge, the last two being manufactur- ing and commercial centres. Old Cambridge is noted as the seat of Harvard University (q.v.) and as a literary and scientific centre. Radcliffe College (1879), for women, practically a part of Harvard; an Episcopal Theological School (1867), and the New Church (Swedenborgian or New Jerusalem) Theological School (1866) are other educa- tional institutions of importance. To Cambridge also, in 1908, was removed Andover Theological Seminary, a Congregational institution chartered in 1807, opened in Andover, Massachusetts, in 1808 (re-incorporated under separate trustees in 1907). This seminary is one of the oldest and most famous theological institu- tions in the United States; it grew out of the theological teaching previously given in Phillips Academy, and was founded by the widow of Lt.-Governor Samuel Phillips, her son John Phillips and Samuel Abbot (1732-1812). The instruction was strongly Calvinistic in the earlier period, but the seminary has always been " equally open to Protestants of every denomination." Very liberal aid is given to students, and there is no charge for tuition. The Bibliotheca Sacra, founded in 1843 by Edward Robinson and in 1844 taken over by Professors Bela B. Edwards and Edwards A. Park, and the Andover Review (1884-1893), have been the organs of the seminary. In 1886 some of its professors published Progressive Orthodoxy, a book which made a great stir by its liberal tone, its opposition to supernaturalism and its evident trend toward the methods of German " higher criticism." Legal proceedings for the removal of five professors, after the publication of this book, failed; and their successful defence helped to secure greater freedom in thought and in instruction in American Presbyterian and Congregational theological seminaries. The seminary is now affiliated with Harvard University, though it remains independent and autonomous. Cambridge is a typical New England city, built up in detached residences, with irregular streets pleasantly shaded, and a considerable wealth of historic and literary associations. There are many reminders of the long history of Harvard, and of the War of Independence. Cambridge was the site of the camp of the first American army, at the outbreak of the war, and from it went the detachment which intrenched on Bunker's Hill. Here are the Apthorp House (built in 1760), in which General Burgoyne and his officers were lodged as prisoners of war in 1777; the elm under which, according to tradition, Washington took command of the Continental Army on the 3rd of July 1775; the old Vassall or Craigie House (1759), where Washington lived in 1775-1776, and which was later the home of Edward Everett, Joseph E. Worcester, Jared Sparks and (1837-1882) Henry W. Longfellow. Elbridge Gerry lived and James Russell Lowell was born, lived and died in " Elmwood " (built in 1767) ; Oliver Wendell Holmes was born in Cambridge also; John Fiske, the historian, lived here; and there are many other literary associa- tions, attractive and important for those interested in American letters. In Mt Auburn Cemetery are buried many artists, poets, scholars and other men and women of fame. Cambridge is one of the few American cities possessing a crematorium (1900). The municipal water-works are excellent. A handsome bridge joining Cambridgeport to Boston (cost about $2,250,000) was opened late in 1906. Four other bridges span the Charles river between the two cities. A dam between East Cambridge and Boston, traversed by a roadway 150 ft. wide, was in the process of construction in 1907; and an extension of the Boston subway into Cambridge to the grounds of Harvard University, a distance of about 3 m., was projected. The city government is admini- stered almost entirely under the state civil-service laws, Cam- bridge having been a leader in the adoption of its provisions. A non-partisan association for political reform did excellent work from 1890 to 1900, when it was superseded by a non- partisan party. Since 1887 the city has declared yearly by increasing majorities for prohibition of the liquor traffic. The high schools enjoy a notable reputation. A handsome city hall (cost $235,000) and public library (as well as a manual training school) were given to the city by Frederick H. Rindge, a one- time resident, whose benefactions to Cambridge aggregated in value $650,000. Cambridge has many manufacturing estab- lishments, and in 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $42,407,064, an increase of 45-8% over their value in 1900. The principal manufactures are slaughtering and meat-packing products, foundry and machine-shop products, rubber boots and shoes, rubber belting and hose, printing and publishing products, carpentering, pianos and organs, confectionery and furniture. Cambridge is one of the chief publishing centres of the country. The tax valuation of property in 1906 ($105,153,235) was more than $1000 per inhabitant. CAMBRIDGE— CAMBRIDGESHIRE 97 Cambridge is " one of the few American towns that may be said to have owed their very name and existence to the pursuit of letters " (T. W. Higginson). Its site was selected in 1630 by Governor Winthrop and others as suitable for fortifications and defence, and it was intended to make it the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony; but as Boston's peninsular position gave it the advantage in commerce and in defence against the Indians, the plan fell through, although up to 1638 various sessions of the general court and particular courts were held here. The township records (published) are continuous since 1631. A direct tax for the wooden " pallysadoe " about Cam- bridge led the township of Watertown in 1632 to make the first protest in America against taxation without representation. The settlement was first known as the " New Towne," but in 1638 was named Cambridge in honour of the English Cambridge, where several score of the first immigrants to the colony were educated. The oldest college in America (Harvard) was founded here in 1636. In 1630 there was set up in Cambridge the first printing press of British North America (Boston having none until 1676). Other notable dates in history are 1637 and 1647, when general synods of New England churches met at Cambridge to settle disputed doctrine and define orthodoxy; the departure for Connecticut of Thomas Hooker's congregation in 1636; the meeting of the convention that framed the present constitution of the commonwealth, 1770-1780; the separation of the Con- gregationalists and Unitarians of the first parish church, in 1829; and the grant of a city charter in 1846. The original township of Cambridge was very large, and there have been successively detached from it, Newton (1691), Lexington (1713), Brighton (1837) and Arlington (1867). See Lucius R. Paee. History of Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1630- 1877 (Boston, New York, 1877): T. W. Higginson, Old Cambridge (New York, 1809); Arthur Oilman (ed.), The Cambridge of Eighteen Hundred and Ninety-Six (Cambridge, 1896); and Historic Guide to Cambridge (Cambridge, 1907.) CAMBRIDGE, a city and the county-seat of Guernsey county, Ohio, U.S.A., on Wills Creek, about 75 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. (1800) 4361; (1000) 8241, of whom 407 were foreign- bom; (1906, estimate) 10,369. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways, and is connected by an electric line with Byesville (pop. in 1000, 1267), about 7 m. S. Cambridge is built on a hill about 800 ft. above sea-level. There is a public library. Coal, oil, natural gas, clay and iron are found in the vicinity, and among the city's manufactures are iron, steel, glass, furniture and pottery. The value of its factory products in 1905 was $2,440,917. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Cambridge was first settled in 1708 by emigrants from the island of Guernsey (whence the name of the county); was laid out as a town in 1806; was incorporated as a village in 1837; and was chartered as a city in 1803. CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS. a school of philosophico-religious thinkers which flourished mainly at Cambridge University in the second half of the I7th century. The founder was Benjamin Whichcote and the chief members were Ralph Cudworth, Richard Cumberland, Joseph Glanvill, Henry More and John Norris (see separate articles). Other less important members were Nathanael Cu^verwel (d. 1651?), Theophilus Gale (1628- 1678), John Pondage (1607-1681), George Rust (d. 1670), John Smith (1618-1652) and John Worthington (1618-1671). They represented liberal thought at the time and were generally known as Latitudinarians. Their views were due to a reaction against three main tendencies in contemporary English thought: the sacerdotalism of Laud and his followers, the obscurantist sectaries and, most important of all, the doctrines of Hobbes. They consist chiefly of a reconciliation between reason and religion, resulting in a generally tolerant spirit. They tend always to mysticism and the contemplation of things transcen- dental. In spite of inaccuracy and the lack of critical capacity in dealing with their authorities both ancient and modern, the Cambridge Platonists exercised a valuable influence on English theology and thought in general Their chief contributions to thought were Cudworth's theory of the " plastic nature " of God, More's elaborate mysticism, Norris "s appreciation of Male- branchc, Glanvill's conception of scepticism as an aid to Faith, and, in a less degree, the harmony of Faith and Reason elaborated by Culverwel. The one doctrine on which they all combined to lay especial emphasis was the absolute existence of right and wrong quite apart from the theory of d